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496
Appendix
SVarlier’ °r SUbSCqUent data: Migration reports. These data also
suffer from imprecise definitions, for black immigration to Canada was remrlo
°ften m te™S °f arrivaIs £rom 1116 United States and via ocean
port^ These two categories are not genuinely helpful, for numerous AmeriMnn^°eS "ndoubtedly entered through the ports of Halifax, Saint John,
Montreal, and Vancouver, just as West Indians and Africans may have
rossed into Canada from the American border rather than entering by sea.
Other data do refer to West Indians as distinct from Negroes, the latter
word apparently being reserved for Americans; but in 1926 the ethnic
totals were dropped, as was the West Indian designation, temporarily. And
immigration reports could be contradictory: although the 1922 report
showed that no Negroes had entered Canada the previous year, this
was
corrected in the report of 1923.27
A comparison of census returns, birthrate ^
estimates, and immigration
reports for the period 1911 to 1951 shows that one body of data was in
? C°nfisiderable numbcr of Negroes “passed over” each decade
m o white classifications—not primarily through intermarriage, since the
intermarriage rate was low, but presumably through electing to consider
Aemselves white. This conclusion would also help to account for the
r" flT8h0Ut the Peri0d fr0m 0ntario
other provinces
( ept Nova Scotia), and for the movement out of Nova Scotia into
Negro communities^
*
^ * °ntari° and Nova Scotia *e
were
„ more reac% recognizable, and if one had made
the decision to “
step. By 1961
help to explain the sharp increase in the reported Negro population, for
“sen ISS 7
h3Ve Ch0Se“ t0 “paSS” “ay now h™5 oh°sen to
tinn i^ i ba faSe-In the previous decades a modestly advancing immigracrease
7 ^ ^ W£St Indies’ aIso contributed measurably to the inIf neither the estimates of interested observers
nor the reports of disinterested statisticians are to be accepted for this study one may yet conelude that the Negro, although never numerous, has on the whole been
more numerous than Canadians have thought. His influence in Canadian
Even
°f ?g dUration and’ at times> of marked importance.
Even more, one may demonstrate that the Canadian experience has been
fte SfeCCaCnad0r
wTfl“t the faction between the black,
, . fCad,’. and their shared environment has revealed much of
general interest and importance about Canadian ethnic and racial
attitudes.
(oLTm9U27yeZVf te Dertment °f ******** ond Colonization . . .
l sstrssasr’ -d '*
A Note on Sources
This book arises largely from manuscript materials. That is true of____
most
books by most historians, and usually the fact would not be worthy of
special comment. Negro, or Black, history manuscript materials present
unusual problems, however. Manuscripts left by Negroes are fewer in
number, more difficult to find, and less self-consciously revealing, than
manuscripts arising from more traditional sources. The reasons for this
comparative dearth are obvious enough, even though until recently few
historians seem to have remarked upon the ways in which an anti- or at
least non-Negro bias might be reflected in many aspects of North Ameri
can social history. In historiography, as in chess, the white is always the
first to move—or has been until recently.
As slaves, blacks often were illiterate; even when free, they were the
least likely of all newcomers to North America to leave behind a written
record. They had left no one in Africa to whom they would write of their
new experiences; they were not organized in the New World in ways con
ducive to communication on paper; and they often lacked the skills re
quired to prepare the historian’s cherished manuscript, to be produced in
time in some neatly catalogued archive. They also were highly itinerant,
and frequently not in control of their own movements, so that the little
they had by way of a historical record was swept aside, left behind, or
burned to keep a body warm during the winter. Furthermore, they were
not organized institutionally, so that until the mid-nineteenth century there
were very few religious groups, schools, mutual aid societies, fraternal or
ganizations, or other self-venerating institutions to preserve a collective
record. Accordingly, Negro records are few, scattered, and require much
time and effort to find, assess, and relate.
The assessment of those records that have survived poses another prob
lem. One need not recite here the many arguments about the special nature
of Black history, for a flood of monographs has appeared in recent years
to attest to the angry shoals upon which anyone who casts himself adrift
from traditional historiography may run aground. Obviously, much of the
documentation relating to the Negro in North America comes from sources
which are “white”; thus we often must view black activities and responses
—even Negro thought—through sources which, while contemporary, are
at one remove from our subject matter. To note that one must also view
497
�ancient Greek thought through modern eyes is not to vitiate the conclusion
that by its nature much white-authored history will be biased history. It
does not follow, however, that all white observers have got their sums
wrong. In any event, the historian works with what he has, and while
black observers are to be preferred in many instances, this is not invariably
so; and even were it so, surely it is not beyond the empathy of man to
compensate at least somewhat for the bias inherent in any observation
that moves across ethnic, cultural, or religious chasms. Two superb books
—David Brion Davis’s The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca,
N.Y., 1966), and Winthrop Jordan’s White Over Black (Chapel Hill,
N.C., 1969)—have been criticized by some scholars on the ground that
they are less about what the Negro did than about what the Negro had
visited upon him. If this is so, it does not challenge the validity of telling
the latter story, and I cannot hope, in this more modest effort, to escape
such criticisms.
In any event, this book says something about both subjects. I have
sought out black sources carefully, and feel that I have demonstrated that
vast quantities of material do exist, if not always in the customary places.
Such sources are not used in preference to white sources, as a substitute
or supplement to them, nor in token integration, but as parallel sources
of equal and different validity.
As drafts of this work were revised, the documentation was substantially
reduced. Anyone interested in additional references to a specific point in
the text may consult the author’s original notes or one of the earlier drafts
of the manuscript, now in the Schomburg Collection of the New York
Public Library. The documentation is relatively full as presented here,
however, and the following essay will deal with contemporary or original
source materials only. The footnotes will lead the reader to the more im
portant of the secondary works, as well as printed documents, which are
not discussed here.
Most of the books, pamphlets, and articles cited in the notes were con
sulted at the British Museum, the Library of Congress, the Public Archives
of Canada, or one of the Canadian provincial archives. All major collec
tions of Negro Americana (as the term once had it) known to me were
consulted. These include the five leading collections: the Schomburg, the
James Weldon Johnson in the Yale University Library, and the holdings
of Fisk, Hampton, and Howard universities. Lesser collections in the Bos
ton Athenaeum, the Brookline (Mass.), Chicago, and Providence public
libraries, the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, the Confederate Me
morial Library in Richmond, Tuskegee Institute, Lincoln University, and
the universities of Atlanta, California, and Vermont, were examined, as
were special collections of antislavery pamphlets at Cornell University and
!
Oberlin College. I also consulted over a hundred theses and dissertations.
Those drawn upon are cited in full in the footnotes. For a basic list, one
may consult Earle H. West, comp., A Bibliography of Doctoral Research
on the Negro, 1933-1966 ([Ann Arbor, Mich.], 1969).
The only partial bibliography on The Negro in Canada appeared as this
work neared completion. Subtitled A Select List of Primary and Secondary
Sources for the Study of Negro Community in Canada from the Earliest
Times to the Present Days, and prepared by Sushil Kumar Jain, it is avail
able from the University of Saskatchewan library (Regina, 1967). The
list is highly selective and uncritical. A Bibliography of Antislavery in
America, prepared by Dwight Lowell Dumond (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1961),
is the most important guide to antislavery literature and other printed
sources. It does not entirely replace two earlier, and excellent finding aids:
W. E. Burghardt DuBois, A Select Bibliography of the American Negro
(Atlanta, Ga., 1905), the only one of several such bibliographies con
sistently to include Canadian citations; and the references in Mary S. Locke,
Anti-Slavery in America, from the Introduction of African Slaves to the
Prohibition of the Slave Trade (1619-1808) (Boston, 1901). These and
other bibliographies include a number of highly general histories of slavery
which make passing reference to Canada—histories not cited in the pres
ent volume. (A representative example is Frank Hoyt Wood, Vrsprung
und Entwicklung der Sklaverei [Leipzig, Germ., 1900], which discusses
Canada on pages 7 to 16.) Anyone wishing to compile a definitive bibli
ography on Canadian Negroes must therefore consult the standard finding
aids as well as the raw notes to the present study, for not all relevant
secondary titles are incorporated in the printed footnotes of this book.
Official Papers
Official papers tend to survive, private papers tend not to. Most official
papers, at least until recently, will tell far more of the Negro as a person
acted upon rather than as actor. For these reasons, the papers of official
bodies—and especially of governments—were of relatively less use in this
study than in most books which attempt to examine some facet of the
Canadian-American relationship. Nonetheless, the official,, papers were
indispensable, especially for a record of the Black Pioneers, the migration
to Sierra Leone, the Maroons, and the Refugees.
The Public Archives of Canada, a uniquely well-run and organized
depository, contains many basic collections of importance. Among these
are the Canadian “G” series, consisting of dispatches and ancillary records
relating to the office of the governor-general. Of this record group’s
twenty-three numbered subseries, the most valuable were Gl, Despatches
from the Colonial Office, G12, Letter Books of Despatches to the Colonial
�500
A Note on Sources
Office, and G20, Civil Secretary’s Correspondence. The “C” series, British
Military Records, provided much information, especially on the War of
1812 and the rebellion of 1837. Particularly fruitful were Cl, C35, C801,
and Cl 049. The Minutes of the Executive Council, Upper Canada Land
Petitions, State Papers of Upper Canada, transcripts of Letters Patent,
transcripts of Treasury letters to the Naval and Military Departments for
1815-21, the raw censuses of Canada, the internal correspondence for
Quebec, and several miscellaneous volumes of petitions, also added pieces
to the mosaic. The Public Archives Record Centre, a storage depot for
the archives, contained the important General Headquarters Papers re
lating to World War I.
The Public Archives of Nova Scotia, in Halifax, provide equally im
portant data. Beginning with the voluminous Akins Collection (to which
belong most PANS volumes bearing a number in the footnotes), succes
sive archivists have drawn together an exceptional range of material.
Among the official papers are volumes of unpassed bills, the letter books
of the surveyor-general for 1784 to 1824, letters of the lieutenant governor
to the Colonial Office, accounts on the final settlement of the Jamaican
Maroons in Nova Scotia, a variety of petitions, deeds, and bills of sale, a
loose collection of land papers, a bound series of Crown Land Papers,
raw census returns, Council Minutes, the Minute Books of Proceedings
of the Port Roseway Associates, official documents on Old Township and
Loyalist settlements, French documents relating to Acadia, and a number
of miscellaneous volumes (on occasion with incorrect binder’s titles, as
when a volume labeled 1815-18 is found to contain a letter for 1836).
The line between official and unofficial papers is a thin one, of course,
and often impossible to draw. Several of the collections used in the New
Brunswick Museum in Saint John were of this kind. They include the or
der books of the York County Militia, the records of the Provincial Chas
seurs, extracts from King’s County wills, miscellaneous records of the
York County registry office, the record book of the Pennfield settlement,
and a variety of marriage and death certificates. A wide range of papers
pertaining to Crown lands in Ontario, together with the papers of the Edu
cation Department (often referred to as the Ryerson Papers) of Canada
West, are among the most valuable sources in the Ontario Provincial
Archives in Toronto. Deeds, petitions, location tickets, and the papers of
the Toronto City Council for the 1840s (supplemented by minutes of town
meetings held by the Toronto Public Library), also proved useful. The
History Branch of Ontario’s Department of Lands and Forests holds a
substantial number of survey records that were relevant. In Windsor, the
registry office provided lists of property holders, plans for lots, and lists of
burials which helped plot the patterns of black settlement in Essex County.
To the West, the Archives of Saskatchewan and those of British Co-
A Note on Sources
507
lumbia proved especially useful. At the former’s Saskatoon branch, a wide
range of homestead records have been microfilmed, while the Regina
branch hdds films of the provincial Department of Education’s district
files. The British Columbia archives, in Victoria, also hold many official
land records, as well as the correspondence of the Commissioner of Lands
and Works. The Land Titles Office, in Edmonton, Alberta, and the pro
vincial Department of Lands and Forests, also in Edmonton, provided
maps, tax records, and certificates of title.
official records were of great value, since the majority of
XT American
.
Canada arrived via the United States. The National Archives
in Washington holds such diverse collections as the papers of the Con
tinental Congress, the George Washington papers, the Interior Depart
ment’s records on the slave trade and Negro colonization, the Harper’s
Ferry Select Committee files, the records of the Labor and Transportation
Committee for Congested Production Areas (1943-45), the State De
partment’s Decimal Files for the first four decades of the present century,
and dispatches from twenty-one American consulates in Canada, as well as
from American consuls in Nassau, Bahamas; Kingston, Jamaica; and Aux
Cayes, Haiti.
The most important repositories of official and public papers proved to
be in Britain, however. The Public Record Office is an overburdened
ever-ncher storehouse for the colonial, imperial, or diplomatic historian’
and many of its volumes were central to this study. These include eighteen
CO series: 2, 23, 42, 44, 45, 60, 188, 217, 218, 219, 220, 267, 270,
296, 305, 398, 410, and 537; together with FO series 5, 35, 115, and
414. Each of these series may run to hundreds of volumes, as in C042
which consists of over 600 volumes, 131 of which proved to contain relevant
material. H045, confidential extradition prints, the Confidential Minute
Papers on The Gambia, Admiralty series 1, WO series 1 and 61 (the
latter the Jeffery Amherst Papers), the Chatham Papers, and the Head
quarters Papers of the British Army in America also were of use. The
Public Archives of Canada holds microfilms of the CO series, and PANS
holds copies of C0188 and 217-20, although for maximum effectiveness
one must still consult the originals. To these official documents should be
added Additional Manuscripts 15,485 in the British Museum, on exports
and imports of North America, 1768-69.
Private Papers
In the end, however, private papers proved to be of the greatest utility.
On subjects of race personal statements are likely to be franker, more
frequent, and ultimately more unconsciously revealing than the cautious
records of governments can be. If one includes among private papers those
�502
A Note on Sources
of unofficial corporate bodies, such as the Society for the Propagation of
the. Gospel, of the many antislavery societies in Britain, Canada, and the
United States, and of self-help societies, one inevitably will find a more
open, accurate, and fuller expression of opinion and reflection of events
than any official records might provide. Unfortunately, the number of col
lections consulted makes a full critical discussion here impractical.
In the United States, all paths lead to the Library of Congress. There
I drew upon single volumes of papers relating to Sir Guy Carleton and
Sir William Johnson; two boxes and sixteen volumes of materials (the
Edward Vernon and Charles Wager collection) on the slave trade prior
to 1773; Arthur Hamer’s manuscript bibliography on the trade, compiled
at Magdalen College in 1799; collections of papers relating to James Gillispie Birney, John Brown, Edward Everett, Augustus John Foster, Hugh
Gaine, Joshua Giddings, Marcus Gunn, Mrs. Basil Hall, Julia Ward
Howe, Samuel Gridley Howe, John Mitchell, Wendell Phillips, F. W.
Pickens and M. L. Bondam, James Redpath, Franklin B. Sanborn, Wil
liam H. Seward, John Sherman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, B. F. Stevens,
Mary Church Terrell, Booker T. Washington, Theodore Dwight Weld’
Walter White, Elizur Wright, Frances Wright, the Western Anti-Slavery
Society for 1845-57, and the Edith Rossiter Bevan Autograph Col
lection. Most valuable of all was the Carter G. Woodson Collection of
Negro Papers, the minutes of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and
papers of Benjamin, Lewis, and Arthur Tappan. (Several of the letters
from Thomas Clarkson and John Scoble to the Tappans have been re
printed in Anne Heloise Abel and Frank J. Klingberg, eds., “The Tappan
Papers,” JNH, 7 [1927], 128-329, 389-554 and simultaneously in their
A Side Light on Anglo-American Relations, 1839-1858 [Washington].)
Boston is the chief center for research on abolitionism. In the Massa
chusetts Historical Society one may consult the papers of John A. Andrew,
John Brown, George Ellis, Edward Everett, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Amos A. Lawrence, Edmund Quincy, and Amasa Walker-—all drawn
upon chiefly for unravelling the story of Josiah Henson—as well as the
Francis Parkman Papers. The Boston Public Library holds the papers of
William Lloyd Garrison, the original manuscript of Josiah Henson’s nar
rative as written by Samual A. Eliot, and Lydia Maria Child, Samuel May,
Jr., Amos A. Phelps, and Maria Weston Papers. Across the river in Cam
bridge, at Harvard’s Houghton Library, one may contest wills against the
awkwardly organized Charles Sumner Papers, which include correspon
dence with Clarkson, Eliot, Ellis, Scoble, and Walker, as well as George
Thompson and Hiram Wilson. The Ralph Waldo Emerson and William
H. Siebcrt Collections, the latter consisting of forty-five volumes of clip
pings and notes (three on Canada), and the Houghton theatre collection,
A Note on Sources
503
„W;* Srarv6 On^T P!?ybilIS’ add t0 1116 att^tions of this most ele-
ton.
. Garrison II collections in the Smith College Library in Northamp-
some Thomas: r,n°JeSS riCh' The NeW-York H^al Society provided
some Thomas Clarkson papers and an excellent copy of John Clarkson’s
John’Taylor' Thomas
Sharp’ Gerri‘ Smith! and
n Taylor, Thomas Nyes journal, a single Charles Stuart letter in the
ranaHS!nP !i °f ^eVerend Franc>s Hawks. a miscellaneous collection on
Canada and settlement, correspondence on the slave trade and da
(olhSeFreCd0rdSjc0nthe, S°Ciety f°r Pr°moting Manumission of Slaves’
i?hai w d
oD0UgaSS papers were consulted in the Douglass Me
jssi-sirs.rrr ris s°f™
f
Samuel Ringgold Ward). At Columbia Unive^y one S the oa^s
eorge Plimpton, of Sydney Howard Gay (in fifty badly sorted boxes)
e papers of the Toronto Emigration Office, the John Bartlet BreW ’
antes T. Shotwell and William J. Wilgus coileSo^alfwfth m«
14o tnianCe~a!1i osheu L' S' Alexander Gumby Collection of Negroiana
1910 untTl950 so
“ °ffPpingS on Mack activities collected from
n i
at50, S° orSamzed that one may readily find materials cm
Douglass Marcus Garvey, Jackie Robinson, and riteTsSSfThe
H^ York Geographical Society library has manuscript maps which denote
black settlements m the Maritime Provinces, and playbills and program s
for Tom Shows are in the New York Library for the Perfor2g 1“
sity Ltory whe0reeam0VeS
m°St
t0 the 5y»«w Univera slDgular Private collection was mined. The Gerrit
Brown Jr rIafPherS T"1 volumin°aa correspondence to Smith from John
Brown, Jr Anthony Burns, Thomas Clarkson, James C. Fuller Thomas
Henning, Benjamin Lundy, Samuel J. May, Jr., Joshua R. Giddings Isaac
and^T-p” J°1^.IScoble> JosePh Sturge, George Thompson, Samuel Ward
and Hiram Wilson, as well as subject matter volumes, as for exampie on
J• WrLo!re,HNrbc
1116 SyraCUSe HiSt0riCal Society holds a Me on
gun and the Syracuse Public Library has a useful collection
f genealogical materials. In Rochester, the university preserves the large
�504
A Note on Sources
the Samud D' Porter hoIdin2s on
facts snmf^ ° ^aiIroad- 111 Auburn one may examine a variety of artiCornell n Ca ‘aD’ m the Harriet Tubman Memorial Home- and at
A Note on Sources
505
van
SteinValshdenrCovedCti<?n’
aDd
P3pCrS °£ Ulrich B- P™PS and Gertrude
Society hold's th^e^t£££& w££*££S™
IthrTa\?e C°,le®e ^ aa extensive“rno^
The S^te Hi t S?c J' May antislavery pamphlet file proved of use.
other of AmSl7^ °f Pennsylvania> in Philadelphia, is yet anlectL vi^/
superlative state archives. Here the Simon Grate Coljournal of ffif Spe;eral,mtoest“S items- William Still’s letter book, and the
were
Society Underground Railroad,
John nrr,^F
^he.mmutes
the Pennsylvania Abolition Society
Robert VauxPJames bSi^^A^ S°me Redpath materia1^’ and th®
British Navtdiw®
’ Amencan NeSro History Society, and
-£<£?.£=.izzszxr** N'“by s"nh-
the o™!l6fi0DS ^ m°re WideIy di^ibuted and I researched th
em as
Clements t -u V aros\ usually while on other business. The William L
STof J
UniV£rSity °f Michigan houses the large coUec-'
Sarah orfr ^' ^ The°d°re DwiSht Weld, and Angelina and
ed tfd hv n Abr°ut one-third of the most important manuscripts
were
Birney, 1837-1857 (2 vds^N111
^
°f Iames GilUsPie
Wilson, and Hemy Eftb a e includli p' SC0We’ StUart* StUrge> Walker,
55 “ “
brary has several diaries of Elihu Burri t hft make
7 ^^
materials of Harriet Beecher Stowe—in some sixt^lihrL^ ^ ^ f® h®
GrMe'y Swe^nrighf 1°£ “
the Kansas State Historical Soctefv Thk
f
Eastman PaPers), and
||S£~SHSlsi
.»£^"o=r„ “o£ s*ja,tsron M“- °*™*
ss jS2s t";:*
v^oV^S£mS^aVery-A^iti0n —p“ KreS Z
,"d
m
“st “ ■=* Acrrsss: ssr
-d
and I used a microfilm of the Wickett-WiswaU Collection of EhiahTo633’
joy Papers at Texas Technological College. The Office of the Chief Jr"
Washillgton’ DC> made available within its Historical
Highway
3 V3nety °f manuscriPt ffles <® the building of the Alaskan
treasUrer’s Ietters> and ‘he
r°WS ^ °D the early fugitive slave settle-
Papers in Canada were also dispersed across the continent.
Again, the
most valuable collections were in the Public Archives of Canada
There
one
ss
X^rer::
HeJ holies
ments in Canada West. P ’
At Yale, the James Weldon Johnson
are
Collection, in the Beinecke Li-
orSJSSI,
zz%v ,ue“re ;r "d i”'-1«»=«««*
8
0DSWUt,0n of Vancouver Island’s Confederate League. The Carl
Galt i «”?S“ Afc"n,I“™
officials. The Louis-Hippolyte
Lafontaine Papers were of great use on
the French period, as were the
�si note on sources
extensive transcriptions from the Archives de la Marine (Serie B) and
Archives des colonies (Serie B, C, E, F) in Paris, the general correspon
dence of Intendant Giles Hocquart, Fonds Frangais from the Bibliotheque
Nationale, and a variety of transcripts from the Archives Nationale. The
papers of James Murray, a number of Carleton transcripts, the Ward
Chipman, William King and William Dummer Powell papers, the diary of
Alexander McNeilledge, the Reynolds Family papers, plans of the Elgin
settlement with contemporary maps, and the journal of Mgr. J. O. Plessis
were of substantial use. The PAC also holds microfilms of the annual re
ports, occasional papers, and minute books of the Colonial and Continen
tal Church Society, the originals of which are at McGill University, at the
Methodist Missionary Society chambers in London, and in the British
Museum With the exception of the last, it was the microfilm I used. George
Julien s ‘ Coon” of Laurier is in the National Gallery of Art, also in Ot
tawa.
In Toronto, the Ontario Provincial Archives provided the papers of Wil
liam Canniff, J. George Hodgins, Mrs. Edmund George O’Brien, James R
Roaf, the Robinson and Russell families, John Graves Simcoe, Thomas
Smith, D. E. Stevenson, Bishop John Strachan, and a typescript by John
M. Elson. The University of Toronto added the John Carleton papers;
while the Toronto Public Library, always pleasant and efficient, drew from
its midden the diary of Elizabeth Russell, the papers of Peter Russell,
Robert Baldwin, William Jarvis, and David William Smith, the HubbardAbbott Collection, the manuscript autobiography of Thomas H. Scott,
Mrs. Amelia Harris’s scrapbooks, and a variety of broadsides, playbills'
prospecti, and clippings. All save the Smith papers proved of immense
value. The pamphlet and newspaper holdings of the Victoria University
(Toronto) Archives were of great use. A Bengough sketch satirizing
blacks hangs m the William Lyon Mackenzie House.
Elsewhere in Ontario, the obvious centers of research were Windsor,
London, and Hamilton. The first provides, in its public library, files on the
AME and BME churches, on black activities in the area, and on Amherstburg’s churches and schools. Several private individuals made available to
me family letters, genealogical charts, marginally annotated books, and
maps while the Hiram Walker Historical Museum also possesses maps
miscellaneous Negro papers, and lists of black settlers. Nearby, in the Amerstburg Public Library, the tiny Boyle Collection attested to the presence
of the early missionaries, while the museum of the Fort Malden National
Historical Park offered the account book of David McLaren Kemp, an
undertaker who was racially conscious, the F. C. B. Fall and Farney papers,
assessment rolls, Amherstburg deeds, and miscellaneous fugitive slave
and genealogy files.
507
The second city, London, provides unpublished local histories in both
S6 -!b lCJuar!! and at
University of Western Ontario, while the
Hamfiton Public Library holds a number of Negro-related scrapbooks and
G. C. Porter s manuscript history of the area. McMaster University, in
Hamilton, houses the Canadian Baptist Historical Association collection.
This includes James W. Johanson’s manuscript history of the Amherst
burg Association, 1841-61, the minute book of the Sandwich Baptist
Church, and the minutes of the Western Regular Baptist Association.
Local libraries in Ontario, the province to which the majority of fugitive
slaves fled, cannot be ignored. The Barrie and Orillia public libraries the
Suncoe County Surrogate Court Office (in Barrie), the Norfolk, Lennox
and Addington, and Oxford historical societies, as well as those of Lundy’s
Lane and Thunder Bay (the latter in Port Arthur), and the ChathamKent Museum in Chatham, all hold relevant manuscripts. The last also has
books from William King’s library; and Uncle Tom’s Cabin Museum
near Dresden, displays playbills and artifacts relating to Henson. The of
fice of the Board of Education in Chatham, in the minutes of the Board
of Public School Trustees, and the Grant African Methodist Episcopal
Church in London, through its church records, helped fill in lacunae in
the local story.
The Maritime archives were of slightly less importance. The Public
Archives of Nova Scotia holds individual files on several early settlers
transcripts from the Carleton papers, the diaries of Simeon Perkins (now
available in carefully edited form), a copy of the first volume of John
Clarkson’s diary, an Etter family genealogy, several Ward Chipman papers
and typescript local histories. Unfortunately, the papers of William s’
Fielding remain closed to researchers. Also in Halifax, the public library
m its local history collection, and the provincial library, in its newspaper
holdings, proved of great help. The Cambridge Maritime Military Library
has compiled a file on William Hall, V.C. The libraries of Saint Francis
Xavier University in Antigomsh and Acadia University in Wolfville the
last incorporating the Maritime Baptist Historical Collection, also yielded
scarce pamphlets and journals; and the Colchester Registry Office in
Truro has a relevant registry book. The office of the Halifax ChronicleHerald holds clippings on the singer, Portia White. I am particularly grate
ful to Marjory Whitelaw of Pictou, who loaned me seven reels of taped
reminiscences of, and conversations with, Negroes living in Nova Scotia
in the 1960s.
In New Brunswick, the provincial museum in Saint John provided
papers and files on the Eastman, Hazen, Mayes, Odell, Thompson, and
etsel famihes, and some surviving Chipman papers, together with
numerous scrapbooks. In Fredericton, the University of New Brunswick,
�508
A Note on Sources
the legislative library, and the Rectory office of Christ’s Church, hold local
registers, wills, and minutes. The Saint John Public library has several files
on local Negro activities. The Woodstock Public Library has a small col
lection of petitions. The Charlottetown, P.E.I., Public Library offered
typescript local histories which attest to early Negro arrivals.
In Quebec, Negro-related private materials were less frequent than one
would expect. The Chateau de Ramezay, in Montreal, has a manuscript
record on slavery in New France, while the Archives du Palais de Justice
attest to sales, births, marriages, baptisms, deaths, and burials. The Mc
Cord Museum of McGill University, in the Porteous Manuscripts, and the
McGill University Library in its local history materials, were of some
value. The provincial archives in Quebec hold the manuscript second vol
ume to Marcel Trudel’s study, wills and other actuarial records, and tran
scripts of the Ordres du Roi. The Brome County Historical Society in
Knowlton offers local manuscripts and files. The single most valuable col
lection in the province, however, is one not generally open to the public:
the records of the Canadian Labour Congress’s Joint Advisory Commit
tee on Human Relations, originally kept at the Workman’s Circle Center
in Montreal. Extensive and highly revealing, these records tell of annual
trips into the Maritime Provinces, as well as within Quebec, to note and
combat instances of overt discrimination. These, together with folders on
discrimination in the Toronto office of the Human Rights Commission,
provided the single greatest non-newspaper source of data on the 1950s
and early 1960s. The collection includes mimeographed reports on activities, normally issued eleven times a year, files of local union news
papers, newsletters of municipal employee groups, and carbons of correspondence with representatives in the field. In the end, relatively little
of this material was incorporated into the present study since the decision
was made to limit it largely to the years before 1960.
Across western Canada private collections helped tell the story of Negro
settlement, although interviews proved to be the most valuable source for
the prairie and mountain provinces since most settlement was within
the memory of living men. The Archives of British Columbia hold the
reminiscences of John Sebastian Helmcken, the diaries and account books
of Wellington D. Moses, the diary, correspondence, and record books of
Edward Cridge, the diaries of Reverend Ebenezer Robson and of Augus
tus F. Pemberton, the South Saanich Public School Visitor’s Journal, tran
scripts relating to the Colonial Missionary Society, several questionnaires
directed to early pioneers, and letters written by J. S. Matthews concerning early black settlers. The Vancouver City Archives, in the Vancouver
Public Library, has other Matthews correspondence and local clipping
files, and Victoria’s City Hall gave me documents signed by Mifflin Wistar
A Note on Sources
509
Gibbs, which I will deposit with the Yale University Library. L_.
The
University of British Columbia and Victoria University, in Victoria, hold
scarce pamphlets. The Central Saanich Baptist Church records, in that
church, attest to other Negro settlers, while the Nanaimo Archives has a
smgle document on
Stark family. Interviews on Saltspring Island,
as well as in Vancouver, proved of great importance.
On the prairies, private papers were less useful. The Glenbow Foundation Archives, in Calgary, holds typescripts and taped interviews with
Nettie Ware and seven other black settlers, related papers, and letters on
the settlements. The Edmonton Public Library has a clipping file on the
Ware family, and the Rutherford Library at the University of Alberta, in
Edmonton, has several manuscript local histories. So, too, does the
Saskatchewan Legislative Library, the University of Saskatchewan, and
the North Battleford and Moose Jaw public libraries. Again, interviews
in Amber Valley, Breton, Wildwood, Lloydminster, and Calgary, Alberta
and in Maidstone and Battleford, Saskatchewan, proved of greater value.
In Great Britain records are voluminous, cherished, yet nonetheless not
so well cared for as in North America. Most collections in the British
Museum take on a semiofficial character, as with the Bright, Clarkson,
Chatham, Cobden, Haldimand, Layard, Liverpool, Peel, and Sturge
papers. The BM reading room is unparalleled, of course, for yielding up
rare pamphlets, such as the annual reports of the Sierra Leone Company
or the Elgin Association; odd copies of the Nova Scotia Packet for 1786,
almanacks, and other printed primary sources. The Archives of the Hud
son’s Bay Company, at London’s Beaver House, provided many references
to Negroes in the fur trade. Somerset House on the Strand, through its
wills; the College of Arms, in its modest Joseph Brant file; the West India
Committee Library, in the minutes of that body for the nineteenth century;
the visitor’s register in the Lambeth Palace Library; and the Estlin Papers
in Dr. Williams Library—all in London, also proved helpful. University
College, London, houses the papers of Lord Brougham, which fortunately
include a full, annotated index to that collection’s fifty thousand letters.
Of particular value for this study were the various archives and libraries
of the London-based missionary societies. The Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel was exceptionally important. It holds the account and
minute books of the Associates of Dr. Bray, the Canadian Papers of that
group, abstracts of proceedings, the journals and reports of the SPG, and
special West African and Nova Scotian files, together with the Houseal cor
respondence and many pamphlets. The original SPG letters from Nova
Scotia are contained in a file box labeled “Dr. Bray’s Associates, Canadian
Papers.” While most of this material is now on microfilm at the PAC, the
film is unusually difficult to use, and one is well advised to consult the
�510
A Note on Sources
originals if at all possible. The Muniment Room of the Methodist Mis
sionary Society holds twenty boxes of letters from the Canadian colonies
to London, of which six were pertinent. (All are on microfilm in the United
Church of Canada Archives at Victoria University, Toronto.) The Society
for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge preserves annual reports and
lists of votes for grants of money; the Church Missionary Society held
relevant journals; and Friends’ House contains letters to and from Phila
delphia that proved relevant, as well as the journals of John Candler and
his wife.
The other great classification of records in Britain upon which I drew
were those of antislavery groups. By far the most important is the large
antislavery collection at Rhodes House, Oxford. This consists of most of
the papers of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (and the AntiSlavery and Aborigines Protection Society), which are systematically
transferred from the latter body’s headquarters at Denison House, in Lon
don, to Rhodes House, every ten years. (The Society retains a small re
search library, the Thomas Binns Collection of pamphlets, some reports
of the Sierra Leone Company, and a modern file on Sierra Leone for the
period of independence.) Rhodes House holds the early minute books,
memorials and petitions, correspondence, and files of the printed Annual
Reports and of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter, from 1840.
These papers were acquired in 1951. To them have been added manuscripts on the South African Labour Corps of World War I, which grew
from an offshoot of the Society—the Committee for the Welfare of Afri
cans in Europe—and manuscripts relating to Indians in Canada. The antislavery papers have been edited and microfilmed, with an introduction by
Howard R. Temperley, the author of a forthcoming study on the AngloAmerican antislavery connection which I have read in manuscript.
Elsewhere in the United Kingdom one finds a variety of lesser collec
tions. The Earl Fitzwilliam Papers, in the Sheffield Central Library
Archives, and other Fitzwilliam Papers in the Northamptonshire Record
Office at Delapre Abbey, were relevant to the story of Sir John Went
worth. The Southampton Civic Record Office has made available the papers
of George S. Smyth. Wilberforce House, at Kingston upon Hull, the Ips
wich Central Library, and the East Suffolk and Ipswich Record Office in
Ipswich hold papers of the ubiquitous Thomas Clarkson. Other Clarkson
letters are in the hands of Thomas Hodgkin, of Oxford, who was kind
enough to grant me access to them at his home in Umington; and in the
Granville Sharp papers, at Hardwicke Court, Gloucester, which LieutenantColonel A. Lloyd-Baker, their owner, made available. The John Rylands
Library in Manchester has some George Thompson materials and the
Crawford Muniments, containing letters written by Earl Balcarres. The
Royal Archivist at Windsor Castle consulted the appointments book of
A Note on Sources
511
Queen Victoria for me, while the Greenwich Naval Library microfilmed
the log of the Sandown, which touches upon the Asia. The National
Library of Scotland, in Edinburgh, has the Edward Ellice Papers, while
the papers of the Earl of Dalhousie, in the Scottish Record Office, contain
correspondence with Bathurst for the Refugee period. The County Archives
of the East Riding of Yorkshire, in Beverley, holds one such letter. There
are Simcoe Papers in the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth and in
the Devon Record Office, Exeter. A petition from Hitchin, Herts., relating
to the fugitive slaves in Canada, listed by Charles O. Paullin and Frederic
L. Paxson in their 1914 Guide to the Manuscripts in London Archives for
the History of the United States since 1783 (Washington), as being in the
House of Lords Papers, could not be traced.
Some records that one would like to consult are apparently gone for
ever. We know that the papers of Reverend Daniel Cock, as well as most
of those of Benjamin Lundy, were destroyed by fire. None of the original
records of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada have been preserved out
side the George Brown papers. The papers of Sam Hughes appear not to
have survived in any quantity. Materials relating to T. B. Macaulay are
said to exist in a garage in suburban Montreal although efforts to gain
access to them failed. While the widows of both Marcus Garvey and Rich
ard Wright sent me various printed materials, they were unable to make
available any manuscript collections. No references to the Fort Erie meet
ing survive in the papers of W. E. B. DuBois, now in the hands of Herbert
Aptheker, who kindly searched them for me. One could also wish
that registers of marriage had been kept in Ontario prior to 1867, but they
were not, and thus only Anglican and Roman Catholic interracial marriages could be documented for Canada West.
Archives in other lands proved of marginal utility. In Bermuda, the
Bahamas, and Jamaica, local archives, public libraries, and churches
yielded records relating to the period when Canadian-West Indian Union
was under desultory discussion. This documentation is cited in my recent
short monograph, subtitled A Forty-Year Minuet (London, 1968). The
Jamaican Institute, the public library of Montego Bay, and the University
of the West Indies hold rare printed materials on the Maroon Wars. The
Sierra Leone Archives, in Freetown, contain John Clarkson’s draft diary,
while the library of the University of Sierra Leone has the diaries of
George Ross. In Freetown I interviewed some members of the Sierra
Leone Settlers’ Descendents League. In Bathurst, The Gambia, I passed
an exciting week in anticipation while working through the archives—then
totally unorganized and strewn about a small shed—to find only two docu
ments relating to the Nova Scotians, duplicated elsewhere. By chance, the
diary of Thomas Haweis, in the Mitchell Library, Sydney, Australia, while
being searched for another purpose, helped to confirm one aspect of the
�J14
A Note on Sources
Nova Scotian migration. In Paris, visits to the Bibliotheque Nationale, the
Archives Nationale, and related archives confirmed that the transcripts
(many handwritten) in the PAC and in Quebec were full and accurate
Finally, one must note other papers which remain in private hands but
which nonetheless were made available to me, in addition to those men
tioned above. Fred Landon’s private collection, to which that devoted
scholar gave all interested historians ready access, proved to be of great
value, especially on the 1840s and 1850s. Consulted in Professor Landon s home in London, Ontario, these materials have been transfered si
nee
his death in 1969 to the University of Western Ontario. Of only slightly
less value were the records kept in the Cornwallis Street Baptist Church
in Halifax. These include the reports of the African Association of Nova
Scotia, and also of the Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement
of Colored People together with extensive church records. Other churches
in British Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, and Nova Scotia also opened up
their records. The documents of the Negro Community Centre in Monfreal, made selectively available by Stanley Cylke, and those of the
Canadian Labour Congress, discussed above, were particularly useful So
too was the private collection of Mr. Alvin McCurdy of Amherstburg who
has drawn together many local records on the Negro community along the
Detroit River. At the Harvard School of Public Health I was given unrestneted access to the original research transcripts of the “Stirling County”
project, which includes raw data on Negro residents in Digby County, Nova
acoua.
1 advertized for individuals to come forward with materials, and a number did so In this way files, letters, and clippings were made available on
Matthew Henson, by Herbert M. Frisby of Baltimore; on John Ware bv
ettie Ware of Kirkaldy, Alberta; on Henry Yandusen, an early black
settler, by Glen Ladd of Dresden; on J. B. Harkin, by Miss Dora Barber
of Ottawa; on Negro Freemasonry in Canada, by Reginald V. Harris of
Halifax; and on the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and the British
Columbia Association for the Advancement of Colored People, by Frank
Collms of Burnaby. Mrs. Keith Staebler loaned her notes on New Road
and her letters to her husband, written at the time; the Reverend William P.
G l!f’ f1S,h°P W- L WaUs> and Reverends Charles Este and Winston
• H. Clarke, as well as Messrs. Stanley G. Grizzle and Daniel G Hill all
made personal items available. Cecil Flarmsworth King kindly permitted’the
author to examine his copy of John Clarkson’s diary in his office at the
London Daily Mirror. (This diary has since gone to the University of
Illinois.) Many others wrote letters of reminiscence, provided references
sent clippings from local newsapers, and simply offered encouragement in
response to my appeals printed in a variety of j'ournals.
A Note on Sources
513
Printed Materials
been indiciateddabovpOIAeS vT
^ scarce Published materials have
. f
. . e' A Wlde vanety
printed sources, especially annual
reports of societies and government agencies, is cited in the notel These
18971 fr?i> It6 leSU!‘ Relations and AUied Documents (Cleveland
211; ed:ted^y Reuben Gold Thwaites> through the annual reports of
die Education Department of Nova Scotia. Wherever possible the originals
bv Pauff rnatenals have been consulted, as with the Relation of 1632,
d n ‘1 Je.une; Whl^h ,s ln the John Carter Brown Library in Provi°f parUcular value were the annual reports of the Canadian League
n7th \r v"CeTn
C° °red People’ of the United Baptist Convention
bers 3
T
°£ ““ Elgin Associatio11 (°f which only numbers 3, 4, 6-7, and 10-11 appear to have survived,
although number 2 is
quoted in the Voice of the Fugitive for November 5, 1851, and number 5
m Bcnjamms Drews work), and of the British Columbia Association for
the Advancement of Colored People. Some reports that one expected to
p °f value—those of the Upper Canada Committee of the Society for the
Propaga ion of the Gospel m Foreign Parts, for example—proved of little
use whde others that one ordinarily would pass over (the Proceedings of
the Semi-Annual and Annual Session of the Grand Lodge of A.F and A
A widT °
fT ' - ' } W6re f0Und t0 conta“ Negro-related records.
A wide range of almanacs, maps, novels, artifacts (as with Negro berry bas
kets preserved in the Citadel Museum in Halifax), and “association items”
!nn-'cTCr^ , ,° be!onging to John Scoble> or l°^s of Thomas Clarkson s hair) helped to demonstrate a relationship, an activity, or an attitude.
Other contemporary materials are less difficult to find. The British
Canadian, and provincial Hansard’s, for example, provide most of the
evidence on the legislative record. The published accounts by fugitive
Josiah FT
^ 7w7 WeUS Br°Wn’ Uwis Clarke- Frederick Douglass,
osiah Henson, J. W. Loguen, Austm Steward, or Samuel Ringgold Ward
ell WC°ntem^r7 cW°rks of Beniamin Drew, Levi Coffin, Samuel
Tosenhy<S°We’ 7?“ { E' Lmt0n’ Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charles Stuart,
Joseph Stage, and others, are all central to this study. The value of most
of these is mdicated at the appropriate places in the
notes.
Newspapers
and
Magazines
While newspapers are a particularly valuable source for the historian
they also present special problems. Full files of any except the major met
ropolitan papers are not likely to have survived and if one wishes to con
sult an entire run of a single newspaper, issues often must be pieced
•
�?
514
A Note on Sources
together from a variety of locations. Viewed as a source of data, a single
issue of a single paper has its values; viewed, as in this study, as a source
of public opinion, and as a molder of that opinion as well, longer and co
herent runs of a paper are essential. Before accepting a news item, the
historian must do what he can to verify its version against other types of
sources or, failing such sources, against another newspaper. The re
searcher must know of the newspaper’s ownership, the politics of its man
agement and of its editors, the extent to which it may be dependent upon
advertising revenue for survival, and the nature of its readership. Ob
viously, news concerning Negro activities that appears in a Negro news
paper differs from news that appears in an anti-Negro paper. Equally
obviously, the estimate given to the size of an abolitionist meeting by the
antislavery Toronto Globe is to be set off against an estimate provided by
the anti-abolitionist Toronto Leader, although not necessarily equally. The
editorial opinions of Toronto’s Christian Guardian will spring from differ
ent sources than the opinions expressed by a secular press. And one must
view distinctions within their time, for most nineteenth-century newspapers
in North America, even if overtly secular, employed biblical and racial
rhetoric on their editorial pages.
Apart from the problem of interpretation there is, when dealing with
the press of the last century and a half, the added problem of quantity.
The nineteenth century was a time of thriving local newspapers, and for
a full understanding of what Canadians read about black men (or about
events which would have given rise to thoughts about black men, as re
porting on the Civil War and Reconstruction in the United States did),
one might reasonably be expected to examine many dozens of titles. In
the twentieth century, with the growth of massive Sunday newspapers, of
supplements, and of advertising, the researcher must contend with a bulk
beyond the capacity of any one person. Yet these newspapers demand
examination, for on their editorial pages, in their news items, among the
social notes, through those letters to the editor which they chose to print,
and even in the products they advertized, one may find frequent suggestions
of racial awareness. A full content analysis of the Canadian press on this
subject would be a lengthy study in itself (and very possibly not worth
while).
Accordingly, I narrowed the range of research in two ways. Leaving
myself thirty-two newspapers which I examined personally and—to the
extent that complete files were available—on an issue-by-issue basis, I
chose forty-five other newspapers, largely weeklies, which both I and
bursary assistants examined on the basis of specific known events, or in
the light of a bulking of Negro-related news items in the initial twentythree papers. These thus came to comprise a “control” group. Further,
since it quickly became apparent that no single researcher could keep
A Note on Sources
515
abreast of press opinion and news items in the decade of the 1960s (dur
ing which time this investigation was made) while carrying out other re
search as well, I sought professional help. From 1960 to 1968 the
Canadian Press Clipping Service of Toronto supplied weekly sets of material drawn from the entire spectrum of the Canadian press, including
all items referring to Negroes—whether in the United States or Canada—
and to discrimination, against whatever group. The specific newspapers
drawn upon, 210 titles in all, are indicated seriatim in the footnotes. A
full list would be superfluous here, as well as unduly cumbersome,
especially since masthead titles often changed two or three times. These
clippings have also been given to the Schomburg Collection.
Certain newspapers were of particular help. Fortunately, many are now
available on microfilm from the Canadian Library Association; and the
Public Archives of Canada, which has runs of all those on film, will loan
its microfilm holdings. The Ontario Public Archives provides many others.
In this way one could examine, for example, the Amherstburg Echo for
1888-1949, the Charlottetown Islander for 1853-65, the Chatham
Journal for 1841-44, the Chatham Planet for 1850-58, The Christian
Guardian for 1837-39, the Fredericton New Brunswick Royal Gazette for
1786-1816, the Halifax Acadian Recorder for 1813-1919, the Halifax
Herald for 1897-1938, the Halifax Journal for 1796-1817, the Halifax
Morning Chronicle for 1884-1969, the Halifax Novascotian for 1841-47,
the Halifax Royal Gazette for 1752-1824, the Hamilton Spectator for
1916-47, the London Free Press for 1859-1969, the Montreal Gazette
for 1840-1969, the Montreal Witness for 1846-54, the Quebec Gazette
for 1768-94, the Saint John Globe for 1847-1912, the Saint John New
Brunswick Courier for 1849-52, the Saint John Royal Gazette for 17841800, the Toronto Globe for 1850-1969 (in later years the Globe &
Mail), the Toronto Financial Post for 1942-69, the Toronto Mail and
Empire for 1911-28, the Toronto Star for 1930-65, the Toronto Tele
gram for 1924-69, the Vancouver Province for 1935-69, the Victoria
Colonist for 1859-1969, the Victoria Daily Evening Express for 1863-65,
and the York Upper Canada Gazette for 1793-1838. The Maidstone Mirror
for 1943-53 is on microfilm in the Saskatchewan archives. Joseph Howe’s
personal copies of The Nova Scotia Chronicle and Weekly Advertiser,
together with the Nova Scotia Gazette and Weekly Chronicle, both from
Halifax, are in the PANS. For background on many of these papers at mid
nineteenth century, see Helen Elliot, comp., Fate, Hope and Editorials:
Contemporary Accounts and Opinions in the Newspapers, 1862-1873,
Microfilmed by the CLA/ACB Microfilm Project (Ottawa, 1967).
Another approach was to examine, in so far as possible, all of the press
of a single key community. For this purpose Windsor was chosen, and
extant files of the Windsor Herald, Daily Star, and Daily Record, were
�516
A Note on Sources
consulted. For Halifax, in addition to the papers cited above, the Nova
Scotia Packet, Weekly Chronicle, Mail-Star, Herald, and Evening Mail
were used.
Particularly important, of course, were the abolitionist newspapers. In
Canada these were the Voice of the Fugitive, published in Windsor from
1851 to 1852 (with a file in the Burton Historical Collection of the Detroit
Public Library); The Provincial Freeman, from Chatham, 1853-ca. 1857
(the originals of which are in the University of Pennsylvania Library), the
short-lived Voice of the Bondsman, from Stratford (with a single 1856
copy surviving in the library of the University of Western Ontario), and
The True Royalist, of Hamilton (of which two copies may be found in
the Fort Malden Museum). In the United States there were far more such
newspapers, and they have survived longer. Those that were searched (al
though there is much duplicated content among them) were the National
Anti-Slavery Standard from New York, 1840-70 (New York Public Li
brary), The Friend of Man, 1836-38 (on film), Garrison’s Boston-based
Liberator, 1831-65, The Oberlin Evangelist for 1848-53 only, The AntiSlavery Record, New York, 1835-37, Anti-Slavery Examiner, New York,
1836-45, American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter, New York,
1840-46, Anti-Slavery Lecturer, from Utica, N.Y., 1839, The Emanci
pator, New York, 1834—49, and the National Anti-Slavery Bazaar, Boston,
1845-50 (all at Yale); The Genius of Universal Emancipation, Benjamin
Lundy’s parapetetic newspaper, 1821—39 (The Johns Hopkins University
Library); and Frederick Douglass’ Paper, for 1853, and the Salem, Ohio,
Anti-Slavery Bugle, 1845-60 (both LC). Also consulted was the New
York Herald for 1854—71, which is not cited in the footnotes since it was
drawn upon heavily in a previous book by the author, and since most of
its news items on Negro activities in Canada were reprinted from other
sources. Of the greatest value was the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery
Reporter to which ‘and Aborigines Friend' was later added, published in
London 1840-1966 (Yale University Library, 1840-57, 1859-67, and
1857—59 on microfilm).
American and Canadian Negro newspapers were a chief source of in
formation and opinion. All Canadian Negro newspapers and magazines,
as discussed in Chapter 13, were researched on an issue-for-issue basis.
Locations of files are discussed in the notes to that chapter. Of some sixtythree American Negro newspapers available on microfilm by 1968,
eighteen were used. Those that proved to be helpful were the St. Paul
Appeal and St. Paul Broad Axe (not to be confused with the Chicago Broad
Ax, which was also consulted), The Elevator, from San Francisco, in which
Mifflin Wistar Gibb’s articles appeared, New York’s Amsterdam News, the
Pittsburg Courier, the Detroit Plaindealer, and the Cleveland Gazette.
A Note on Sources
517
Several newspapers were used at the office of the papers themselves, on
occasion with the aid of an informal index compiled locally for in-house
purposes. That this method of approach was useful may be shown by the
Saint John Telegraph. Two important items relating to the Refugee
Negroes of the 1820s, drawn from reminiscences of early settlers in Nova
Scotia, appeared in issues in 1875 and 1884. The New Freeman, a Roman
Catholic newspaper, also of Saint John, and read in that paper’s library,
first revealed in its issues for 1903 the controversy with Neith magazine’
as related in Chapter 13. The Toronto Star's clipping file proved of great
use as well. Regrettably, two files of newspapers that might well have en
riched the story told here were not found: The Truro News, of which only
a post-1949 run survives in that paper’s office, following upon a fire in
that year; and the Dresden Times, published weekly from 1872 into the
1890s.
Magazines, like newspapers, are organs of opinion. The number of
articles on Negro-related subjects, as well as their content, is one index
to the degree of interest in the “Negro problem.” Articles on race relations
in the United States, appearing in contemporary Canadian periodicals__
Atlantic Advocate, Commentary, Canadian Forum, Canada Week,
Maclean's, Saturday Night—reveal much about the use of the Negro as a
metaphor in the relations between the two countries. Articles in welfareoriented journals, such as Canadian Labour Reports, the Journals of Edu
cation for both Ontario and Nova Scotia, Canadian Welfare, L'Action
nationale, The Labour Gazette, The Journal of the Y.M.C.A., The Angli
can, or The United Church Record and Missionary Review, increasingly
contain Negro-related materials. American journals, especially in the nine
teenth century, had occasion to report on the progress of the fugitives in
Canada and, later, on race relations in the Dominion. Thus, Atlantic
Monthly, The Chautauquan, The Literary Digest, The Living Age, the New
York Times Magazine, The North American Review, Outlook, Scribner's
and The Southern Workman, all contain relevant matter. So, too, do reli
gious periodicals in both countries: Acadia Bulletin, American Missionary,
The [Canadian] Baptist Magazine and Missionary Register, Canadian
Christian, Canadian Evangelist, Freewill Baptist Quarterly, Gospel Tribune
and Christian Communionist, The Maritime Baptist, The United Church
Observer, the Upper Canada Baptist Missionary Magazine, and several
others. The most important British publications were the American Baptist
Free Mission Society (seen in the American Antiquarian Society),
Arminian Magazine, Baptist Annual Register, The Colonial Protestant,
Free Church of Scotland Monthly, and Herald of Peace. British and
Canadian popular periodicals were of substantial help'. These include
�518
A Note on Sources
A Note on Sources
519
Of Riches (1957) or The Innocent Traveller (1949) respectivelv Still
clnadiln erilS,S;
Anglo-American Magazine, Canadian Antiquarian,
prrj
Il‘ustrfed News- Canadian Magazine, The European Magazine
Monthlv’l d yp Cana?en‘ The Imperial Magazine, Knox College
Journal'TheTn
The Maple Lea<- Numismatic
Z ,'T
A Llterary and AntiSl™ery Journal, and The Unirsity agazine. Special interest publications were often of value- Ca
nadian Cigar and Tobacco Journal, Canada-West Indies Magazine, McDuff
!ro, r';
v?" Merchant, West India Commercial Cir-
cuiar, or the New York organ of the Ku Klux Klan, the American
Standard.
fun?seSdatA°nS °f \nd fM Canadiaa and American Negroes were careMly searched. Among these were those magazines discussed in Chapter 13
journal rt AtS A/kan In!erpreter’ African Repository and Colonial
i
, ' _ Afro~Ame/ican Magazine, The AME Church Review Amherstburg Quarterly Mission Journal, The Black Man, The Black Worker
c2Ze/r!nenCanr Challense’ The stored American Magazine, The
Th M Ha,vesl- Crisis, Ebony, The Freedman’s Advocate, The Informer
PalmTh^’v68™ Dl8eSt (D0W BlaCk W°rld)’ Negr0 World> Pine and
Palm, The Spoken Word," and The Street Speaker.
Most of the above were consulted at the Library of Congress the Yale
University Lib™,, ,b, British Mnsenm, or the&hombTJ CoM™
Exceptions are the Canadian religious periodicals, read in the New York
Pubhc Library, at Acadia University, McMaster University, the Union
SoStTtP S”r{/New Y°* City), the American Bapiist Historic^
y ( ochester, New York), or the Southwestern Baptist Theological
v^Tvh F°rlWonh)- Four earlier journals were consulted at the Har
vard library: American Baptist Magazine and Missiona,y Intelligencer
nublSdSe“sBatptlS‘ Maftme, Massachusetts Missionary Magazine (all
published m Boston), and Vermont Baptist Missionary Magazine
(Ruttwe^fl
J’°UrAnaIS gave
t0 othera> of a secular nature, in the
twentieth century. Again, as m the 1920s so in the 1960s, Canadian fiction
m magazines and books reflected continental norms, and the black man was
set to play the same roles in Canadian as in American fiction. Negroes be
gan to appear with regularity in Canadian novels, still as stock figures but
now supporting °*T stereotyPes- Mazo de la Roche wrote her poorest
h k’!fr0miP8 at Jahla (1961). about pro-Southern Canadians during the
r
Civil War; Ernest Buckler, a highly regarded Maritime novelist, was to
prove unexpectedly graceless when he attempted to hint at prejudice in
Nova Scotia’s classrooms in his 1959 short story, “Long, Long after School”
(A fanttc Advocate, 52 [1959], 42-44); and even GabrieUe Roy and Ethel
Wilson, fastidious writers both, could not bring black men to life in Street
D.«, ,„d tvtog L„lm,
r„ -rs-sri«2r- “d ^ i»«"
L™‘
undesirable Negroes, so did lib.,1
men
novels: The Apprenticeship of Daddy KravTtz (1959) r/! .SUCCessi011 °f
(1963), and CociW (1968) It wa left to 1’
Ineom*rdHe
srr “
covertly and frequently overtly-had become part of tte
baggage for the Canadian of the 1960s, a far wfder range ofmaterids S
.h...*h te
Zta p=Jddts^™ d”i «S
o?r“! ,0,bl'Clt-Whl“ "“«=>">■'- Few r«LS ,„ fa,t ,o nS
of the journals mentioned above, have been incorporated into the footnotes
rightly the provmce of the social scientist than of the humanist*1*10118 m°le
I
Still, , not all knowledge arises from the printed word. Interviews with
mo„
many dozens: of Canadian Negroes, from Cape Breton Uland to Vancou
!!L“’ fPSd t0 Provide a background of attitudes, recollections
regrets, and pleasures for the post-1865 years. Seldom
’
was I refused the
�1
I
520
A Note on Sources
gift of time, attention, and of being taken seriously; often this gift was
accompanied by a willingness to bring out faded photographs, wedding
invitations, and family Bibles, the visual evidence of a past that was
thought worth remembering. Such items are not “documents” to add to the
piling of note upon note—no more than the casual conversation with a
black laborer, a sidewalk artist, or a school custodian may be—but they
provide above all the interest and the pleasure to sustain the more traditional search for evidence. There are many thousands of Negroes in
Canada to whom I was not able to talk, and this study is the weaker for
that. It is nonetheless much the stronger for the help of those with whom
I could talk, for the fact that no one appeared to feel that the end result
would lack “relevance” to the continuing black experience.
These contacts often took place at the scenes of events described in
this book, for no archive can provide a substitute for traversing the ground
of history itself. One must see for oneself precisely where William King’s
house stood, or William Peyton Hubbard was buried, or John Clarkson
spoke to the assembled Nova Scotians. To see the Cockpit Country of
Jamaica; to view Freetown from the heights above Fourah Bay; to write
upon a table in Kingston upon Hull where Wilberforce wrote—in short, to
experience the place, the sight, and occasionally the sound of history is to
remind oneself that the historian must always use that slight gift of intuition
which makes the leaps of faith he takes between evidence and conclusion
possible. It is in such places and moments as these, as well as in the con
tinuing chase within the confines of an archive, that the historian must
ever seek his pleasure and his sole reward.
Index
In the index, as well as the text, hyphens appear in French-Canadian names when
their owners generally used them, and otherwise not. Place names in Canada but not
stanhvCHnameS d“Where’ are indexed- °nly ^ose footnotes which contain sub
discussion of a point are included in the index. The maps are omitted, as is
the Note on Sources, except for pages 512 and 519-20.
Abbott, Anderson Ruffin, 328-32 passim Afro-American Press Association, 393
335, 412n41
Afro-Beacon, The, 404
Abbott, Ellen Toyer, 328-29
Agnew, Stair, 44, 108, 109
Abbott, Wilson Ruffin, 211, 212, 226 Alake of Abeokuta, 167
255, 328-29, 357, 367
Alberta: settlement in, 287; Oklahoma
Acadia University, 350, 383
Negroes in, 303, 305-06; civil rights
Activism: in the church, 351-52; growth
legislation in, 428
of, 414-68
Alcan project, 422
Adams, Elias, 258
Alexander, Arthur, 314
Adams, Grantley Herbert, 442
Alexander, Charles, 277
Addington, 133
Alexander, Lincoln, 459-60, 489, 494
Adolphustown, 33
Allan, William, 352
Africa: migrations to Sierra Leone, 44, Allen, Isaac, 44, 108, 109
56, 57, 61-78, 90-94; Bulama settle Allen, Richard, 154-55, 355
ment in, 74, 75; settlement in Liberia, Allen, William, 152
154; Canadian reaction to apartheid Amber Valley, 303, 306, 308, 381
in, 445-48
Amelia Island, 116
African Aid Society, 168
American and Foreign Anti-Slavery So
African Association of Nova Scotia, 512
ciety, 173, 263, 264
African Baptist Association of Nova American Anti-Slavery Society, 149 179
Scotia, 139
220,236,263,490
’
*
African Methodist Episcopal Church American Baptist, The, 342
(AME), 154, 231, 355-60, 394
American Baptist Anti-Slavery Conven
African Methodist Episcopal Zion
tion, 219
Church (AMEZ), 355, 359
American Baptist Free Mission Society
African Orthodox Church, 354, 415
200-03 passim, 206, 230-31, 342
African Students Association of the American Baptist Missionary Union, 342
United States and Canada, 442
American Colonization Society, 154-55
African United Baptist Association of
162, 257
*
Nova Scotia, 139, 345-48 passim, American Missionary Association
386-87
(AMA), 207-08, 224-27, 271, 397
African United Nations Emergency
American Nazi Party, 468n66
Force, 445-46
American Revolution, affect on Negroes
Africa Speaks, 404, 408-09, 412/z40
29-31,46,61
“
3
Africville, 130, 348, 383, 384, 389, 411
American Tract Society, 221, 222
420, 441, 452-56
Amherst, 27, 52
Afro-American Council, 359
Amherst, Jeffrey, 24
521
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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Lyman Wilmot House
Description
An account of the resource
This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad.
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Deerfield Public Library
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Deerfield Public Library
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Deerfield Public Library
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2002
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English
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DPL.0013
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Dublin Core
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Title
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A Note on Sources
The Blacks in Canada: A History
Description
An account of the resource
Photocopy from The Blacks in Canada of a section entitled "A Note on Sources." Some highlighting.
Creator
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Winks, Robin W.
Publisher
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Yale University Press
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1971
Language
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English
Identifier
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DPL.0013.033
A Bibliography of Antislavery in America
A Forty-Year MInuet
A Select Bibliography of the American Negro
A Side Light on Anglo-American Relations
A. Lloyd-Baker
Abby K. Foster
Aberystwyth Wales United Kingdom
Abolitionist Newspapers
Abstracts
Acadia Bulletin
Acadia Documents
Acadia University
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Acadiensis Magazine
Activities
Actuarial Records
Adams Tolman
Addington Historical Society
Addington Ontario Canada
Adolphustown Canada
Advertising Revenue
Africa
Africa Speaks
African Aid Society
African American Fremasonry
African American Newspapers
African Americana
African Association of Nova Scotia
African Canadian Newspapers
African Methodist Episcopal Church
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
African Orthodox Church
African Repository and Colonial Journal
African Students Association of the United States and Canada
African United Baptist Association of Nova Scotia
African United Nations Emergency Force
Africville
Afro-American Council
Afro-American Press Association
Alake of Abeokuta
Alaskan Highway
Alberta Canada
Alberta Churches
Alberta Civil Rights Legislation
Alberta Department of Lands and Forests
Alcan Project
Alexander Crummell
Alexander McNeilledge
Alexander Tilloch Galt
Almanacs
Alvin McCurdy
Amasa Walker
Amber Valley
Amber Valley Alberta Canada
AME Church
Amelia Harris
Amelia Island
American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter
American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
American Anti-Slavery Society
American Antiquarian Society
American Antiquarian Society Stephen and Abby K. Foster Papers
American Baptist Anti-Slavery Convention
American Baptist Free Mission Society
American Baptist Free Mission Society Magazine
American Baptist Historical Society
American Baptist Magazine and MIssionary Intelligencer
American Baptist Missionary Union
American Civil War
American Colonization Society
American Consulates
American Missionary Association
American Missionary Magazine
American Nazi Party
American Negro History Society
American Reconstruction Era
American Revolution
American Standard Magazine
American Tract Society
Amherst
Amherstburg Association
Amherstburg Churches
Amherstburg Deeds
Amherstburg Echo
Amherstburg Ontario Canada
Amherstburg Public Library
Amherstburg Public Library Boyle Collection
Amherstburg Quarterly Mission Journal
Amherstburg Schools
Amos A. Lawrence
Amos A. Phelps
Amsterdam News
Anderson Ruffin Abbott
Angelina Grimke
Anglican Church
Anglican Interracial Marriages
Anglo-American Antislavery Connection
Ann Arbor Michigan
Anne Heloise Abel
Annotated Books
Annual Reports
Anthony Burns
Anti-Black Bias
Anti-Black Bias in History
Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society
Anti-Slavery Bugel
Anti-Slavery Examiner
Anti-Slavery in America from the Introduction of African Slaves to the Prohibition of the Slave Trade
Anti-Slavery Lecturer
Anti-Slavery Society of Canada
Antigonish Nova Scotia Canada
Antislavery Groups
Antislavery Pamphlets
Antislavery Societies
Apartheid
Archives
Archives du Palais de Justice
Archives Nationale
Archives of British Columbia
Archives of Saskatchewan
Archives of Saskatchewan Regina Branch
Archives of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Branch
Arminian Magazine
Arthur Alexander
Arthur Hamer
Arthur Tappan
Artifacts
Asia
Assessment Rolls
Atlanta Georgia
Atlanta University
Atlantic Advocate Magazine
Atlantic Monthly Magazine
Auburn New York
Augustus F. Pemberton
Austin Steward
Autobiography
Aux Cayes Haiti
B.F. Stevens
Bahamas
Baltimore Maryland
Baptisms
Baptist Annual Register
Barrie Ontario Canada
Barrie Public Library
Bathurst
Bathurst The Gambia
Battleford Saskatchewan Canada
Beaver House
Bengough
Benjamin Drew
Benjamin Lundy
Benjamin Singleton
Benjamin Tappan
Berea College
Bermuda
Beverley England
Biased Histories
Bibliotheque Nationale
Bibliotheque Nationale Fonds Francais
Births
Black Canadians
Black History
Black Pioneers
Black World
BME Church
Booker T. Washington
Boston Athenaeum Library
Boston Massachusetts
Boston Public Library
Boston Public Library Maria Weston Papers
Breton Alberta Canada
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines Friend
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society Committee for the Welfare of Africans in Europe
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society Research Library
British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society Thomas Binns Collection
British Colonial Office
British Columbia Association for the Advancement of Colored People
British Columbia Churches
British Military Records
British Museum
British Museum Additional Manuscripts on Exports and Imports of North America
British Museum Bright Papers
British Museum Chatham Papers
British Museum Clarkson Papers
British Museum Cobden Papers
British Museum Haldimand Papers
British Museum Layard Papers
British Museum Liverpool Papers
British Museum Peel Papers
British Museum Reading Room
British Museum Sturge Papers
British Naval Prisoners' Correspondence
British Periodicals
Broadsides
Brome County Historical Society
Bronze American
Brookline Massachusetts
Brookline Public Library
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
Bulama Settlement Sierra Leone
Burial Lists
Burials
Burnaby Canada
Calgary Alberta Canada
California University
Calvin W. Philleo
Cambridge Maritime Military Library
Cambridge Massachusetts
Canada
Canada Commissioner of Lands and Works
Canada Lieutenant Governor
Canada Week Magazine
Canada West
Canada West Education Department
Canada-West Indies Magazine
Canadian Antiquarian Magazine
Canadian Baptist Historical Association
Canadian Censuses
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Canadian Cigar and Tobacco Journal
Canadian Colonies
Canadian Evangelist Magazine
Canadian Fiction
Canadian Forum Magazine
Canadian Illustrated News
Canadian Labour Congress
Canadian Labour Congress Joint Advisory Committee on Human Relations
Canadian Labour Reports
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Canadian League for the Advancement of Colored People
Canadian Library Association
Canadian Magazine
Canadian National Gallery of Art
Canadian Novels
Canadian Periodicals
Canadian Press
Canadian Press Clipping Service of Toronto
Canadian Prime Ministers
Canadian Provincial Archives
Canadian Rebellions of 1837-1838
Canadian Welfare Magazine
Canadian-West Indian Union
Cape Breton Island Canada
Carl van Vechten
Carter G. Woodson
Case Western Reserve University
Cecil Harmsworth King
Central Saanich Baptist Church
Certificates of TItle
Challenge
Chapel Hill North Carolina
Charles Alexander
Charles Este
Charles O. Paullin
Charles Stuart
Charles Sumner
Charles Wager
Charlottesville Virginia
Charlottetown Canada
Charlottetown Islander
Charlottetown Public Library
Chateau de Ramezay
Chatham Board of Education
Chatham Board of Public School Trustees
Chatham Board of Public School Trustees Meeting Minutes
Chatham Journal
Chatham Ontario Canada
Chatham Planet
Chatham-Kent Museum
Chicago Broad Ax
Chicago Historical Society
Chicago Public Library
Chipman
Christ's Church
Christ's Church Rectory Office
Christian Guardian
Church Activism
Church Missionary Society
Civil Secretary's Correspondence
Cleveland
Cleveland Gazette
Cleveland Ohio
Clifford Sifton
Clippings
Cocksure
Colchester Registry Office
College of Arms
Colonial and Continental Church Society
Colonial and Continental Church Society Annual Reports
Colonial and Continental Church Society Minute Books
Colonial and Continental Church Society Papers
Colonial Missionary Society
Columbia University
Columbia University George Plimpton Papers
Columbia University James T. Shotwell Collection
Columbia University John Bartlet Brebner Collection
Columbia University L.S. Alexander Gumby Collection of Negroiana
Columbia University Sydney Howard Gay Papers
Columbia University William J. Wilgus Collection
Columbus Ohio
Commentary Magazine
Concord Free Public Library
Concord Free Public Library Sanborn Papers
Concord Massachusetts
Connecticut Historical Society
Continental Congress
Cornell University
Cornell University Autograph Collection
Cornell University College Papers
Cornell University Samuel J. May Antislavery Pamphlet File
Cornell University Special Collections
Cornwallis Street Baptist Church
Correspondence
Council Minutes
Crawford Muniments
Crisi
Crown Land Papers
D.E. Stevenson
Daniel Cock
Daniel G. Hill
David Brion Davis
David McLaren Kemp
David William Smith
Death Certificates
Deaths
Delapre Abbey
Denison House
Detroit Historical Society
Detroit Michigan
Detroit Plaindealer
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Detroit Public Library Burton Historical Collection
Detroit River
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Digby County Nova Scotia Canada
Discrimination
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Dissertations
Dora Barber
Douglass Memorial Home
Dr. Bray
Dr. Williams Library
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Dresden Ontario Canada
Dresden Times
Duke University
Dwight L. Dumond
Dwight Lowell Dumond
Earl Balcarres
Earl Fitzwilliam
Earl of Dalhousie
Earle H. West
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Eastman
Ebenezer Robson
Ebony
Edge
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Edith Rossiter Bevan
Edmonton Alberta Canada
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Edmund Quincy
Edward Cridge
Edward Everett
Edward Everett Augustus John Foster
Edward Vernon
Elgin Association
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Elias Adams
Elihu Burritt
Elijah Lovejoy
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Elizabeth Russell
Elizur Wright
Ellen Toyer Abbott
Ernest Buckler
Essex County Ontario Canada
Ethel Wilson
Etter
Evidence
Excelsior
Exchange
Exeter England
F.W. Pickens
Family Bibles
Family Letters
Fate Hope and Editorials: Contemporary Accounts and Opinions in the Newspapers 1862-1873
Fisk University
Fisk University American Missionary Association Archives
Fisk University Library
Flash
Fort Erie
Fort Malden Museum
Fort Malden National Historical Park
Fort Malden National Historical Park Museum
Fort Malden National Historical Park Museum F.C.B. Fall and Farney Papers
Fort Worth Texas
Fourah Bay
Frances Write
Francis Hawks
Francis Parkman
Frank Collins
Frank Hoyt Wood
Frank J. Klingberg
Franklin B. Sanborn
Fraternal Organizations
Fred Landon
Frederic L. Paxson
Frederick Douglass
Frederick Douglass' Paper
Fredericton Canada
Fredericton New Brunswick Royal Gazette
Free Church of Scotland Monthly Magazine
Freetown Sierra Leone
Freewill Baptist Quarterly Magazine
Fremont Ohio
French Archives de la Marine
French Archives des Colonies
French Canadian
Friends' House
Fugitive Slave Files
Fugitive Slave Settlements
Fur Trade
G.C. Porter
Gabrielle Roy
Genealogical Charts
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George Brown
George Ellis
George Julien
George PLimpton
George S. Smyth
George Thompson
George Washington
Gerrit Smith
Gerrit Smith Miller
Gertrude Stein
Gideon Welles
Giles Hocquart
Glen Ladd
Glenbow Foundation Archives
Globe and Mail
Gloucester England
Gospel Tribune and Christian Communionist Magazine
Governmental Papers
Grand African Methodist Episcopal Church Records
Grant African Methodist Episcopal Church
Grantley Herbert Adams
Granville Sharp
Great Britain
Great Britain Public Record Office
Great Britain Public Record Office Admiralty Series 1
Great Britain Public Record Office British Army in America Headquarters Papers
Great Britain Public Record Office Chatham Papers
Great Britain Public Record Office Confidential Minute Papers on The Gambia
Great Britain Public Record Office WO Series 1
Greenwich Naval Library
Guide to the Manuscripts in London Archives for the History of the United States Since 1783
Guy Carleton
Halifax Acadian Recorder
Halifax Chronicle-Herald
Halifax Citadel Museum
Halifax Evening Mail
Halifax Herald
Halifax Journal
Halifax Mail-Star
Halifax Morning Chronicle
Halifax Nova Scotia
Halifax Novascotian
Halifax Public Library
Halifax Public Library Local History Collection
Halifax Royal Gazette
Halifax Weekly Chronicle
Halvor Steenerson
Hamilton Ontario Canada
Hamilton Public Library
Hamilton Spectator
Hampton University
Hansards
Hardwicke Court
Hardwicke Court Granville Sharp Papers
Harlem New York City
Harper's Ferry
Harper's Ferry Select Committee
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Harriet Tubman Memorial Home
Hartford Connecticut
Harvard Library
Harvard School of Public Health
Harvard School of Public Health Stirling County Project
Harvard University Houghton Library
Harvard University Houghton Library Charles Sumner Papers
Harvard University Houghton LIbrary Houghton Theatre Collection
Harvard University Houghton Library Ralph Waldo Emerson Collection
Harvard University Houghton Library William H. Siebert Collection
Hazen
Helen Elliot
Henry Bibb
Henry Clinton
Henry Cowles
Henry Huntington Library
Henry Vandusen
Henry Wilson
Henson
Herald of Peace Magazine
Herbert Aptheker
Herbert M. Frisby
Herts
Hiram Walker Historical Museum
Hiram Wilson
Historiography
Hitchin
Horace Greeley
House of Lords Papers
Houseal
Howard R. Temperley
Howard University
Hudson's Bay Company
Hudson's Bay Company Archives
Hugh Gaine
Human Rights Commission
Human Rights Commission Toronto Office
Human Rights Commission Toronto Office Discrimination Files
Illiterate
Ilmington England
Index
India
Institutional Organization
Interviews
Ipswich Central Library
Ipswich England
Irving Layton
Isaac Allen
Issac J. Rice
Ithaca New York
J. George Hodgins
J.B. Harkin
J.O. Plessis
J.S. Matthews
J.W. Loguen
Jackie Robinson
Jamaica
Jamaica Cockpit Country
Jamaican Institute
James Buchanan
James C. Fuller
James G. Birney
James Gillispie Birney
James Miller McKim
James Murray
James R. Roaf
James Redpath
James T. Shotwell
James W. Johanson
James Weldon Johnson
Jeffrey Amherst
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John A. Andrew
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John Brown
John Brown Jr.
John Candler
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John Graves Simcoe
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John H. Rapier Papers
John Hopkins University
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John J.E. Linton
John M. Elson
John Mitchell
John Rylands Library
John S. Keyes
John Scoble
John Sebastian Helmcken
john Sherman
John Strachan
John Taylor
John Ware
John Wentworth
Joseph Brant
Joseph Howe
Joseph Sturge
Joshua Giddings
Joshua R. Giddings
Josiah Henson
Journals
Julia Ward Howe
Kansas State Historical Society
Karl Shapiro
Kentucky
King's County WIlls
Kingston Jamaica
Kingston Upon Hull
Kirkaldy Alberta Canada
Knowlton Quebec Canada
Knox College Monthly
Ku Klux Klan
L.S. Alexander Gumby
L'Action Nationale Magazine
Lambeth Palace Library
Land Records
Le Foyer Canadien
Leipzig Germany
Lennox Historical Society
Lennox Ontario Canada
Leonard Cohen
Letter Books of Dispatches to the Colonial Office
Letters of James Gillispie Birney
Letters Patent Transcripts
Levi Coffin
Lewis Clarke
Lewis Tappan
Liberator
Liberia
Library of Congress
Limbo
Lincoln Alexander
Lincoln University
Literary Criticism
Lloydminster Alberta Canada
Local Histories
Local Newspapers
London Daily Mirror
London England
London Free Press
London Methodist Missionary Society
London Ontario Canada
London Public Library
London Review
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Long Long After School
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Lot Plans
Louis Dudek
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Lowery's Claim
Loyalist Settlements
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Lundy's Lane Historical Society
Lundy's Lane Ontario Canada
Lydia Maria Child
M.L. Bondam
Maclean's Magazine
Magazines
Magdalen College
Maidstone Mirror
Maidstone Saskatchewan Canada
Maine Historical Society
Maine Historical Society Robert Trelawny Collection
Manchester England
Manuscript
Manuscript Histories
manuscripts
Maps
Marcel Trudel
Marcus Garvey
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Maria Trumbull Church
Maria Weston
Maritime Archives
Maritime Baptist Historical Collection
Maritime Provinces
Marjory Whitelaw
Maroon Wars
Maroons
Marriage Certificates
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Mary Church Terrell
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Massachusetts Baptist Magazine
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Massachusetts Historical Society Francis Parkman Papers
Massachusetts Missionary Magazine
Matthew Henson
Mayes
Mazo de la Roche
McDuff Ottawa Report
McGill University
McGill University Library
McGill University Library Local History Materials
McGill University McCord Museum
McGill University McCord Museum Porteous Manuscripts
McMaster University
McMaster University Canadian Baptist Historical Association Collection
Methodist Missionary Society
Methodist Missionary Society Muniment Room
Mifflin Wistar Gibb
Mifflin Wistar Gibbs
Migration to Sierra Leone
Minnesota Historical Society
Minnesota Historical Society Halvo Steenerson Papers
Minutes
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Missionaries
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Mitchell Library
Montego Bay Jamaica
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Montpelier Vermont
Montreal Gazette
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Moose Jaw Public Library
Mordecai Richler
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Mrs. Keith Staebler
Municipal Employee Group Newsletters
Mutual Aid Societies
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National Anti-Slavery Bazaar
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National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
National Library of Scotland
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National Library of Wales
National Library of Wales Simcoe Papers
Naval and Military Departments Treasury Letter Transcripts
Negro Digest
Negro World
Neith Magazine
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New Britain Public Library
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New Brunswick Museum
New Brunswick Museum Ryerson Papers
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New France
New Road
New York
New York City New York
New York Geographical Society
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New York Herald
New York Historical Society
New York Historical Society Correspondence on the Slave Trade and Slavery
New York Historical Society Frederick Douglass Papers
New York Historical Society Gerrit Smith Papers
New York Historical Society Granville Sharp Papers
New York Historical Society John Taylor Papers
New York Historical Society Miscellaneous Canada Collection
New York Historical Society Society for Promoting Manumission of Slaves Records
New York Historical Society Thomas Clarkson Papers
New York Library for the Performing Arts
New York Public Library
New York Public Library Alexander Crummell Collection
New York Public Library Gideon Welles Papers
New York Public Library Horace Greeley Papers
New York Public Library James Miller McKim Papers
New York Public Library John Edward Bruce Papers
New York Public Library Maria Trumbull Church Papers
New York Public Library Schomburg Collection
New York Public Library Schomburgh Collection
New York Public Library William Lloyd Garrison Papers
New York Times Magazine
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Norfolk Historical Society
Norfolk Ontario Canada
North America
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North Battleford Public Library
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Northamptonshire Record Office
Northamptonshire Record Office Fitzwilliam Papers
Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People
Nova Scotia Chronicle and Weekly Advertiser
Nova Scotia Churches
Nova Scotia Education Department
Nova Scotia Gazette and Weekly Chronicle
Nova Scotia Jamaican Maroons
Nova Scotia Journal of Education
Nova Scotia Packet
Nova Scotia Provincial Library
Novels
Novia Scotia Packet
Numismatic Journal
Oakland Art Gallery
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Oberlin College
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Odell
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Ohio State Historical Society
Ohio State Historical Society Benjamin Lundy Papers
Ohio State Historical Society John Brown Papers
Ohio State Historical Society Joshua Giddings Papers
Ohio State Historical Society Wilbur H. Siebert Papers
Oklahoma
Old Township Settlements
Oliver Johnson
Onatario Department of Lands and Forests
Ontario Canada
Ontario Churches
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Ontario Journal of Education
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Ontario Provincial Archives
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Ordres du Roi
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Orillia Public Library
Ottawa Canada
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Outlook Magazine
Oxford England
Oxford Historical Society
Oxford Ontario Canada
Oxford Rhodes House
Pamphlets
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Paul le Jeune
Pennfield Settlement
Pennsylvania Abolition Society
Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society
Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Underground Railroad Journal
Pennsylvania State Historical Society
Pennsylvania State Historical Society John Brown Papers
Pennsylvania State Historical Society Simon Gratz Collection
Personal Statements
Peter Russell
Petitions
Philadelphia Pennsylvania
Photographs
Pictou Nova Scotia Canada
Pine and Palm
Pioneer Questionnaires
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8. A Continental Abolitionism?
The Underground Railroad plays a dual role in the story of the continental
movement to abolish slavery. It was unquestionably the highly effective
means by which a number—an exaggerated and indefinite number of
fugitive slaves reached British North America. It was the cause of a legend
that would make it possible for Canadians to reinforce their self-congrat
ulatory attitudes toward their position on the Negro, and to strengthen
those self-congratulatory assumptions into the twentieth century. The latter role was more demonstrable than the former.
To say that the Underground Railroad was enlarged by legend is not
to say that it did not exist. Clearly, there was a loose network of abolition
ists, perhaps predominantly Quaker, who communicated with one another
in order to make known various places of refuge where fugitive slaves
might go during their journey from the slave states to the free border cities
of the north and to the British provinces. Thousands of fugitive slaves were
helped in this manner, being passed on from hand to hand, fed, clothed,
and hidden, and on occasion given transport or money for the purchase of
tickets. In some areas—especially southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio—
the so-called Underground Railroad agents worked clandestinely, living
amidst proslavery or anti-Negro neighbors. But in many other areas
further to the north the Railroad was seldom underground, being well
known to local newspapers and law officers alike—as in Syracuse, Detroit,
and Toledo. That the Railroad did help many fugitive slaves reach Canada
West in particular, yet that its importance was much exaggerated, is now
well demonstrated.1 Both aspects of this legend are central to an under
standing of the position of the Negro in the Canadas during the decade
before, and the several decades after, the Civil War.
Canadian legend today claims that at least sixty thousand fugitive
slaves were resident in Canada West in 1860. Contemporary estimates
ranged from fifteen to seventy-five thousand, with many whites accepting
figures closer to the latter. If this were so, the black population of Canada
West in the 1850s was around 4 percent of the total, since the 1861 census
1. See, in particular, Larry Gara: “Propaganda Uses of the Underground Railway,”
Mid-America, n.s., 23 (1952), 155-71; and idem, “The Underground Railway: Legend
or Reality?”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 105 (1961), 33439.
�234
A Continental Abolitionism?
The Blacks in Canada
for the province showed 1,396,000. That the Negro population did increase
precipitously in the southwestern part of the province also is clear, a condition that helps to explain the rapidly rising anti-Negro sentiment in that
portion of Canada West as well as the tendency to overestimate Negro
numbers. If so many fugitive slaves did find refuge in the single province,
two other conclusions follow: the great majority returned to the United
States at the end of the Civil War, since the Negro population in 1871
was undeniably but a fraction of sixty thousand; and the Canadians could
rightly take credit for harboring—and for at least a decade and a half
giving aid to—a quite substantial body of refugees from the political and
social conflicts of the Republic.
Yet, both the estimates of the Negro population, and the conclusions
relating to fugitive slaves that flow from these estimates, must be tempered
by a number of observations:
1. While contemporary accounts often suggested that sixty thousand or
more fugitive slaves were present in Canada West, in fact at least, both
Canada West and Canada East were meant—as one may see when the
estimates are read in context; and on occasion all of British North America
was indicated. Thus, the sixty thousand should be read against a total
population of over three million. In fact, the black segment of the population probably gained only a percentage point in the 1850s, since there
was massive white immigration during the decade.
2. While the estimates implied that they referred to fugitive slaves only,
again when read in context nearly all show that they applied to the total
black population. The figures often were given out in ignorance of the
presence of many free Negroes from the northern states and of free
Canadian Negroes who traced themselves back to the American Revolution. One may ask, What is said of the British North American attitude
toward Negroes when all were assumed to be fugitives? 2
3. In any event, the estimates utterly ignore the official censuses of the
governments of the Canadas. The census for Canada West in 1851 showed
a total of 4,669 Negroes, while official estimates suggested 8,000; the
census for 1861 showed 11,223; and other official figures raised the total
to 13,566. The 1861 census, in particular, was thought at the time and has
proven since to be quite inaccurate.3
2. Siebert, Underground Railroad, p. 219; Booker T. Washington, The Story of
the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery (New York, 1909), 2, 240. Contemporary authority for the estimate of a total of sixty thousand Negroes in the Canadas
appears in “W. M. G.” “A Sabbath among the Runaway Negroes at Niagara,” Excelsior, 5 (1856), 41. Typical exaggerations include the estimate of Thomas Nye, men
tioned in chapter 6, note 28, above.
3. See M. C. Urquhart and K. A. H. Buckley, cds., Historical Statistics of Canada
(Cambridge, 1965), pp. 1-4, for an analysis of the inaccuracy of the early census
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4. Further, no accurate figures can be given either for the number of
fugitive slaves in the whole of the British North American provinces, or
for the total number of Negroes. Many attempted to pass for white when in
the Canadas, many were not enumerated, and census takers might reasonably have confused fugitive American with free American blacks, since the
former often claimed the status of the latter, especially because of their
misplaced fear of extradition.
5. Samuel Ringgold Ward, a fugitive slave himself, wrote in his autobiography in 1855 that reaching Canada was a most difficult task, and that
"but few comparatively can come.” This would seem a logical conclusion,
for the Canadas were far away and little known to the fugitives, and many
were told that the colonies were uninhabitable for black men. One must assume that the majority of the total number of fugitive slaves did not reach
the Canadian provinces and remained in the free northern states.4
6. This being so, how many might have reached the Canadas? Official
reports suggested that the slave states lost perhaps a thousand runaway
slaves a year. Assuming this to be so for the period 1830 to 1860, even
had every single fugitive reached Canada safely, the total would have been
only 30,000.° As it was, many died en route, disappeared and could not be
accounted for, returned to the South to escape another time and be counted
again (for one man escaping twice is two escapes, although he is still but
one man when on Canadian soil), or remained in the North.
7. Thus, contemporary accounts tended to refer to fugitives as “passing
through” Syracuse, Albany, or Cleveland “on the way to Canada.’ All
of these were assumed to have reached the Canadas. But many—perhaps
the majority—stopped short of the Canadian border; and many were
counted more than once, “passing through” Albany and, at a later date,
“passing through” Syracuse, Rochester, or Buffalo. No doubt, there were
many, like William Wells Brown, who set out for Canada West and, finding
ice on Lake Erie had curtailed steamer traffic, simply stayed in Ohio.6
returns. The census of 1851 is believed to have underenumerated the province’s
total population by a hundred thousand. Both it and that of 1861 undercounted
children.
4. Ward, Autobiography, p. 158; Gara, The Liberty Line: The Legend of the
Underground Railroad (Lexington, Ky.f 1961), pp. 37-40, 67, 111, 145, 149, 161,
185-90. Gara has drawn upon the Siebert Papers in the Ohio State Historical Society
and Harvard's Houghton Library; I have examined both collections and accept his
conclusions.
5. However, in 1855 a Southern judge guessed that the slave states had lost
“upwards of 60,000 slaves” (Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery In
the Ante-Bellum South [New York, 1964], p. 118).
6. See William Edward Farrison, “A Flight Across Ohio: The Escape of William
Wells Brown from Slavery,” The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly,
61 (1952), 272-82, and Brown’s Narrative . . . (Boston, 1847). A typical entry
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77ie Blacks in Canada
A Continental Abolitionism?
237
8. Related to this terminological guesswork was the tendency for
abolitionists, in letters, newspaper accounts, and their autobiographies, to
rejoice at having put a fugitive “on the stage for Canada.” This phrase
could be invoked in Cincinnati—where it meant nothing, since no stage
ran from southern Ohio to Canada—as well as in Buffalo, where it had
genuine meaning. To count a fugitive who boarded a stage in Cincinnati,
or even Oberlin, as being safely in Canada is similar to assuming that a
Hungarian refugee who was seen leaving Budapest in 1957 arrived safely
in Vienna.
9. The abolitionist press quoted each other at length, usually but not
always with credit, and with repetitious figures—all of which served to
create the impression that refugees were reaching Canada West in waves.
The Voice of the Fugitive would report that forty Negroes had arrived in
Amherstburg; six weeks later the same item would be reprinted in another
abolitionist journal in New York or Ohio. The forty fugitives one read of
in June were the same forty that one had read of in April.7
10. The free Negro population in the northern states, and the total
Negro population in British North America —fugitive and free—showed
an excess of females. Most fugitives were males. One might conclude that
the majority in either population therefore consisted of nonfugitives.
11. Many southerners, who had some reason to wish to exaggerate thenlosses, did not think the Canadas harbored large numbers of fugitive slaves.
The New Orleans Commercial Bulletin suggested in 1859 that fifteen
hundred slaves had escaped each year for fifty years. This figure applied
to the entire South and was said to represent an outer limit of the possible;
even so, this would have accounted for but seventy-five thousand fugitives,
the upper figure sometimes given for Canada West alone. When the
Baltimore Sun said, in 1856, that all living fugitives were worth thirty
million dollars, it also suggested that the average value was nearly $9,000,
a patent untruth.8
12. The abolitionists, who might also have wished to exaggerate thensuccesses, were less sanguine. In 1861 the American Anti-Slavery Society
estimated that the total number of slaves who had escaped was well below
seventy-five thousand. Most were thought to be in the North.9
13. The fugitives who did reach the British provinces were by no means
entirely happy. A number returned to the northern states, through which
they had passed while seeking out the North Star, further reducing the
total in the Canadas. At the beginning of the Civil War, more returned.
14. After the Fugitive Slave Bill was passed, abolitionists on the border,
such as Henry Bibb, Isaac Rice, and Hiram Wilson, reported that fugitives
were arriving at the rate of thirty a day. This seems a substantial figure,
and indeed it was when so many descended upon the strained resources of
Rice or Wilson. Yet were this so, the post-1850 fugitive black population
of Canada West alone (setting aside those who returned to the North or
died in the province) would have been 110,000 in 1860, a clear absurdity.
At the height of the fugitive influx, the total Negro population of Amherst
burg—the single most important entry point for refugees—was at most
eight hundred; and during the eighteen months of initial panic after pas
sage of the bill, even the Toronto Globe set the figure at no higher than
three thousand.10
15. On occasion free Negroes from the northern states moved into the
Canadas and pretended to be fugitives in order to attract the sympathy of
Canadian abolitionists or to benefit from the fugitive slave hostels. In
1854, for example, a free black barber from New Hampshire twice raised
money to reach Canada by claiming that his master was pursuing him.
Many of the begging preachers appear to have been free men.11
16. One of the most publicized of the Underground Railroad depots
was that run by the fugitive J. W. Loguen in Syracuse. His activities were
not secret, and once in a free state a fugitive could learn of Loguen and
his work. Yet in nearly nine years in Syracuse, Loguen—whose account
is exaggerated on other matters—saw but fifteen hundred fugitive slaves,
not all of whom moved on to the Canadas.12
17. Studies of Negro songs and folk tales in Canada show relatively
few references to fugitives. More important, recent investigations of
southern slave songs show that Canaan, the Promised Land, and the New
Jerusalem were equated most often with Africa and seldom with Canada.
In the South, those slaves who contemplated other lands did not appear
to have had the British provinces uppermost in their minds.13
would tell how "a female, Patsey Williams, of Kentucky, on her way to Canada,
passed through Rochester Thursday" {Stratford [C. W.] Beacon, May 31, 1861).
7. And the "six covered wagons filled with Negroes" hailed by the Owen Sound
Comet on May 18, 1852, were the same covered wagons earlier praised by the
Detroit press.
8. Gara, Liberty Line, p. 153, quoting Baltimore Sun of March 13. The St.
Catharines Journal esU'mated in 1857 that “1,500 to 2,000 slaves" were brought to
Canada annually, predicted an end to slavery in the South, and that there would be
no blacks in Canada by 1900. See The St Catharines and Lincoln Historical Society,
St. Catharines A to Z by Junius 1856 ([St Catharines, 1967]), p. [70].
9. Ibid., pp. 38-40.
10. Anti-Slavery Reporter, n.s., 4 (1856), 135; Toronto Globe, June 10, 1852;
Montreal Gazette, Oct 4, 1860. See W. H. Withrow, “The Underground Railway,"
RSC, Proceedings and Transactions, sec. 2, 8 (1902), 73; Fred Landon, "Canada’s
Part in Freeing the Slave,” OHS, Papers and Records, 17 (1919), 74-84; and Landon,
"The Negro Migration to Canada after the Passing of the Fugitive Slave Act," JNH,
5 (1920), 22-36.
11. Siebert, Underground Railroad, p. 249.
12. Loguen, The Rev. J>W. Loguen, as a Slave and as a Freeman: A Narrative
of Real Life (Syracuse, N.Y., 1859), p. 444.
13. Helen Creighton, “Folklore of Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia," National
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The Blacks in Canada
18. This is not surprising, for the slaves were kept in ignorance of
British North America, and most of them were probably not, at the
moment of their escape, thinking of taking refuge under the lion’s paw.
Slaveholders emphasized the harshness of the northern climate, denied
their slaves maps or the education that would enable them to read them,
and suggested that all Canadians spoke French, worshipped idols, and
executed black men upon arrival. Lewis Clarke, in memoirs published in
1845, said that he had been told that Canadians would skin his head,
eat his children, poke out their eyes, and wear their hair as coat collars.
Even so astute a Negro as Frederick Douglass thought that Canada was
where “the wild goose and the swan repaired at the end of winter” and
not “the home of man.” 14
19. These estimates, confusions, and exaggerations were added to by
the publications of contemporary observers. In 1860, Reverend William M.
Mitchell published in London an influential book on The Under-Ground
Railroad. A free Negro who had been a slave driver, Mitchell lived in
Toronto after 1855 as an agent for the American Baptist Free Mission
Society. He claimed that the railroad had been operating for a quarter
of a century and that “nearly two thousand” fugitives reached “Canada”
each year. This would have meant a total fugitive population of fifty
thousand; and allowing for deaths his estimate was forty-five thousand.
This figure, then, is well below many of the estimates, and yet it is given
by a man who had every reason to enlarge it, since he used his book as
a medium by which he solicited funds for his church and school in Canada
West; many of the communitarian settlers condemned him as “a pious
fraud.” 10 Later it was suggested that in 1860 alone five hundred Negroes
“from Canada” went into the slave states to rescue others, a figure that
surely confuses border crossings into the North for business, social, and
religious purposes with antislavery journeys. Even so industrious and
courageous a person as Harriet Tubman made not more than nineteen
(and probably fifteen) such trips over eight years.10
Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 117 (Ottawa, 1950), pp. 86, 127; Creighton, “Songs
from Nova Scotia,” Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 12 (I960),
84-85; W. J. Wintemberg, “Some Items of Ncgro-Canadian Folk-Lore,” The Journal
of American Folk-Lore, 38 (1925), 621; Arthur Huff Fausct, “Folklore from the
Half-Breeds in Nova Scotia," ibid., pp. 300-15; Fausct, cd., Folklore from Nova
Scotia (New York, 1931), pp. vii-xiv.
14. Narrative of the Sufferings of Lewis Clarke, during a Captivity of More than
Twenty-Five Years, Among the Algerines of Kentucky . . . (Boston, 1845), pp. 3940; Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Hartford, Conn., 1884) pp.
198-99.
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15. Mitchell, The Under-Ground Railroad, pp. 3-5, 71, 113.
16. Herbert Aptheker gives this figure in The Negro in the Abolitionist Move
ment (New York, 1941), p. 16, perhaps drawing it from Benjamin Brawlcy, A Short
History of the American Negro, 2nd rev. ed. (New York, 1927), p. 78.
A Continental Abolitionism?
Another of the chief accounts of the Underground Railroad was by
William Still, a free Negro who from 1847 was on the staff of the
Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. Philadelphia
was a prime entrepot for fugitive slaves, and many visited Still at his home;
during fourteen years of active work on behalf of escaping slaves, includ
ing a visit to Canada West in 1855, he kept detailed records from which,
in 1872, he published his Record of Facts. Subsequent students of the
Railroad drew heavily upon this massive volume of 780 finely printed
pages, twice revised and extended, of narratives and letters.17 Yet a close
reading of Still’s work, together with an examination of his manuscripts,
does not support the notion that great streams of fugitives reached British
North America through the medium of “the Road.’’ Still gives evidence on
892 fugitives in his volume—although there appear to be more, some are
repetitions—and he provides names for most. Of these, he gives evidence
clearly showing that 112 reached the Canadas, and he asserts on nine
other occasions, without evidence, that fugitives did so; the rest are left
departing from Philadelphia with “their faces set Canada-wards.” From
the names provided by Still, one may identify five more who reached
Canada West, unknown to him. No doubt there were others, for many
fugitives changed their names—if not always radically, as when John
Atkinson became John Atkins—and a number, not alone on Still’s evi
dence, could have passed for white after arriving in the provinces. None
theless, the figures that one may project as safely having reached British
North America via Philadelphia are not, despite Still’s frequent usage of
Canada as a presumptive goal, very large.18
20. Subsequent scholarship added to the figures. Many volumes re
peated the estimates. Some, such as Homer Uri Johnson’s From Dixie
to Canada: Romances and Realities of the Underground Railroad, pub
lished in 1894,10 are presented as factual, when they were in truth a
pastiche of tales. Other works, such as the highly influential treatment by
Wilbur H. Siebert, The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom—
the first genuinely scholarly study of the fugitive slaves’ escape routes,
published in 1898—further fed the legend. Siebert (whose position at his
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Letters, &c . . . (Philadelphia); Siebert, Underground Railroad, p. 234, n. 1; Drew,
North-Side View of Slavery, p. 43. I have examined the Letter Book of William
Still, and the Journal of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Underground Rail
road in the PSHS, and they add little to Still’s published account
18. A number of Still’s letters have been reprinted in Carter G. Woodson, ed.,
“Letters Largely Personal and Private," JNH, 11 (1926), 104-75. See also Larry
Gara, "William Still and the Underground Railroad,” Pennsylvania History, 28
(1961), 33-44; and C. Lightfoot Roman, The Underground Railroad (Valleyfield,
P.Q., [1933]), passim.
19. (Orwell, Ohio), vol. 1 (no further volumes published); 2nd cd., 1896.
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university was in European rather than American history) worked from
published materials, a lengthy questionnaire he sent to aging antislavery
advocates, and from conversations with former fugitives. He did not verify
the published accounts—many of them repetitive, taken from each other—
against manuscript sources, and he accepted the answers to his question
naire at face value. His descriptions and references—to “taking an agency”
for the Railroad, or “employees of the U.G.R.R.”—tended to suggest a
greater degree of organization than existed.20 Even so careful a scholar as
western Ontario’s Fred Landon, the foremost student of the Negro settle
ments in Canada West, was content to accept from Siebert and elsewhere
the estimates of sixty thousand fugitives, did not distinguish carefully
between fugitive and free Negroes, and reported that after 1850 “the early
trickle which had become a stream turned for a time into a torrent.”
Siebert’s work, Landon concluded, was “authoritative.” 21
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today are descendants of fugitive slaves, the slave condition, poverty, and
America—inheritors of the disgrace of both caste and mark. In 1956 when
a journalist, J. C. Furnas, asked acquaintances to guess at the total number
of fugitive slaves, the average reply set the figure at 270,000; some
answered a million.22 Is it little wonder, then, that one heritage of the
fugitive slave period, for Canadians, is an easy assumption of Negro
uniformity? The legend of the Underground Railroad and its aftermath
has united all Canadian Negroes into a single group in the eyes of white
Canadians, reinforcing those prejudices which grow from the notion that
an ethnic group must be viewed as a single social unit. To Canadians,
Negroes were a monolith, both because of their color and because of their
presumed origins as fugitive slaves—origins probably shared by no more
than half the Negro population of Canada today.
British North Americans who read the literature of the Underground
Railroad, the fugitive slaves, and the abolitionists in general also were
reinforced in their consciousness of moral purity. Some few accounts—by
Drew, Henson, Ward, Israel Campbell, and Austin Steward in particular 23
—remarked upon the incidence of prejudice in the Canadas and compared
Canada West to the northern states; but the great mass of fugitive nar
ratives were unstinting in their praise of the Canadian haven and found
no occasion to mention the quasi-segregated pattern of life developing
there, the numerous demeaning incidents that the fugitives encountered,
or the morass of conflicting claims made upon the confused fugitive by
missionary groups, communal settlements, and school societies. In the
thirty most widely known fugitive slave accounts published between 1836
and 1859, British North America is mentioned in all but four; of these
twenty-six accounts, few can be said to provide anything like a realistic
picture of conditions in Canada West.24
The structure of these fugitive slave narratives tended to be similar.
Often the fugitive was said to have “much white blood” flowing in his
veins, was forced to watch drunken masters down great quantities of
whiskey (for the books also preached temperance), and had to listen to
s, and b----- h”) from which religion was a
foul language (“d—n, b
solace taken despite the master’s disapproval. During the flight one was
usually helped by Quakers, met a band of Indians, and kissed the earth
of Canada. Much was written off as “substantially, if not literally, true,” as
Loguen remarked. For the white reader, interest focused upon the exciting
That Siebert’s Underground Railroad existed is quite true. Many brave
and selfless men labored for it in behalf of the fugitive slaves. Thousands
of fugitives did find refuge in Canada West And one should not denigrate
the estimates contemporary to 1860 without putting something in their
place. This is difficult, for the censuses were inaccurate, the fugitives often
stayed in the Canadas only a few weeks, and no figures are available with
consistency from school, tax, or voting records, since some but not all
provide an indication of color. On the basis of my own research, the best
I can offer—in addition to the statement in the Appendix—is that by
1860 the black population of Canada West alone may have reached forty
thousand, three-quarters of whom had been or were fugitive slaves or their
children, and therefore beneficiaries of the Underground Railroad.
But the legend outgrew the reality in Canada, as legends invariably do
without the correctives of time, logic, or scholarship. And the legend fed
the twentieth-century assumption that nearly all black men in Canada
20. Siebert wrote many articles on the underground railroad, as well as his mas
sive book, cited previously, The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom (see
pp. 29, 70-72, 76, 151). He confuses the date of his interviews, however (compare
p. 194 n. 1, and p. 249 n. 4). The uncritical acceptance of his book is shown in the
Siebert Papers in the Houghton Library, vol. 45 of which contains letters and reviews
(including Canadian ones) on its publication. See, for example, the Montreal Star,
Jan. 28,1899.
21. Landon, “Canada and the Underground Railroad," Kingston Historical Society,
Reports and Proceedings (1923), p. 17, and “The Underground Railway along the
Detroit River," Michigan History, 39 (1955), 63-68. The chief volumes that build
upon Siebert are: Hildegarde Hoyt Swift, The Railroad to Freedom (New York,
1932); Henrietta Buckmaster [Henkle], Let My People Go: The Story of the Under
ground Railroad (New York, 1941); and William Breyfogle, Make Free: The Story
of the Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, 1958).
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22. Furnas, Goodbye to Uncle Tom (New York, [1956]), p. 239.
23. Henson, Ward, Steward, and Drew have been cited previously. Campbell’s
account, an unusually able one, was Bond and Free: or, Yearnings for Freedom . . .
(Philadelphia, 1861); see especially pp. 199, 203-39, 251-64, 291-97.
24. See those titles discussed in Nelson, “Negro in Literature," pp. 60-67.
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The Blacks in Canada
moment of escape from the master and the long journey northward to
freedom; a secondary interest lay in accounts of life on the plantation,
culminating in a series of brutalities which precipitated the decision to
flee. Little space was given to the post-escape life of the fugitive, in part
because the narratives often were written soon after the fugitive had
arrived in the North or in Canada, and in larger part because the later
aspects of the story held less intrinsic interest. Even Benjamin Drew, in his
A North-Side View of Slavery—published in Boston in 1856 by John P.
Jewett, the enterprising publisher of Uncle Tom’s Cabin—gave most of
his space to accounts of how the fugitives escaped, despite his announced
intention to provide a record of “the history and condition of the colored
population of Upper Canada.”
Representative accounts were those by J. W. Loguen, Moses Roper, and
Laura Haviland, and those on Harriet Tubman. Loguen was born in
Tennessee, the natural son of a white man and a slave mother. His flight to
freedom, in 1834-35, was a daring undertaking; during his five years in
Canada West he learned to read, took a two-hundred-acre farm (which he
lost because of a partner’s bad judgment), and spoke of acquiring British
citizenship. He turned to teaching school in Utica, New York; became an
elder in the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (and in 1868, a
bishop); and was for some years a teacher and minister in Syracuse,
where he was one of the prime movers in the “Jerry rescue,” leading to his
taking temporary refuge with Hiram Wilson in Canada. He died in 1872.
Loguen’s autobiography, which is contradictory and unclear on dates and
sequences, became an important primary source for historians. Although
Loguen stated that there was no Underground Railroad at the time of his
flight, the Dictionary of American Biography later would note how his
escape revealed that “preliminary surveys” had been made for the under
ground system and that “a few lines already ran . . . as unerringly as
railroads run through the large towns and cities.” 25 On the other hand
Roper, whose narrative sold widely in England, went on to London. Later
he became famous in British North America through a lecture tour.20
It was in Sarah Bradford’s biography of Harriet Tubman in 1869 that
several of the songs allegedly sung as the fugitives crossed the Suspension
25. See Loguen, as a Slave and as a Freeman, which despite its date (1859) con
tains letters for 1860; Wfilliam] H. A[Uison], “Jermain W. Loguen," DAB 11 (1943),
368-69; James Egert Allen, The Negro in New York (New York, 1964)*, pp. 74-75J
and Rhodes House, Oxford, Anti-Slavery Papers: Wilson to Scoble, Feb. 24, 1852!
The Syracuse Public Library’s copy of Loguen’s book contains a note indicating
that he was sixty-three when he died, which suggests that he was bom in 1810 (the
DAB says 1813); the New York Tribune for Oct. 1, 1872, contains an obituary.
26. Roper’s account was A Narrative of the Adventures and Escapes of Moses
Roper, from American Slavary, 3rd ed. (London, 1839).
/I Continental Abolitionism?
243
Bridge at the Niagara frontier were first recorded. The most famous words
betrayed abolitionist and non-Negro origins, however, even as printed
in the Bradford account:
I’m now embarked for yonder shore,
Where a man’s a man by law.
De iron horse will bear me o’er,
To ‘shake de lion’s paw’;
Oh, righteous Father, wilt thou not pity me,
And help me on to Canada, where all de slaves are free.
Oh I heard Queen Victoria say,
That if we would forsake,
Our native land of slavery,
And come across de lake,
Dat she was standing on de shore,
Wid arms extended wide,
To give us all a peaceful home,
Beyond de rolling tide.
To this Bradford added, “No doubt the simple creatures . . . expected
to cross a wide lake instead of a rapid river, and to see Queen Victoria
with her crown upon her head, waiting with arras extended wide, to fold
them all in her embrace.” 27
Laura Haviland, a white Canadian-born Quaker “Superintendent of
the Underground,” also was the subject of much postemancipation writing
in Canada. Her narrative, A Woman’s Life Work, although rambling, un
clear, and filled with fictitious dialogue, unquestionably shows that she
aided several fugitives to escape, knew Hiram Wilson and Isaac Rice, and
was to the Detroit frontier what Harriet Tubman was to the Niagara. In
addition to her active part in the Anderson extradition case, Laura Havi
land taught school and, hoping to avoid denominational strife, opened a
Christian Union Church in the Puce River area in 1852-53 with the
support of Henry Bibb and two Detroit philanthropists. She suffered all
the publicized rigors of the Canadian climate, frequently awakening “with
snow sifting on her face, and not infrequently [finding] the snow half an
inch or more deep on her bed upon rising in the morning.” 28 The point at
27. Sarah Bradford, Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People, 2nd ed. (New
York, 1886); Smith College, Sophia Smith Collection: Martha Coffin Wright to
Lucretia Coffin Mott, n.d. [18601; Earl Conrad, Harriet Tubman (Washington, 1943),
passim. Conrad suggests there were fifteen trips, Bradford mentions nineteen. The
author visited the Harriet Tubman Memorial Home, near Auburn, New York, but
found no useful memorabilia.
28. See Mildred E. Danforth, A Quaker Pioneer: Laura Haviland, Superintendent
of the Underground (New York, 1961), passim (the quotation is from p. 122);
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The Blacks in Canada
A Continental Abolitionism?
others who left moving mcmoirs-S ClariTe, »m»Brown!
Wilham Harrison—were honest, for on the whole they were, but that their
Sfern aV^ r;r0t *\ayS USed honeStIy by those wh0 generalized from
them, adapted them to their own purposes, reprinted out-of-context extracts
British North!America u^n^the^asis^of them
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refugees upon whom Drew commented, twelve were born free and kidnappcd into slavery or fled from fear of being kidnapped. Five were
passing as white. Ages ranged widely, with many being middle-aged (or
as Isaac Rice defined the term, over thirly-iree) and many much
fwithfall !e?!i aU Werf destitute» cominS as one said “like terrapins,
L,
Ve ^adi 0n 0Ur backs-” A number arrived heavily armed.20 Their
attemnLTf01!!^17/38 gtnU'mQ’ and on several occasions Negroes
southerners wh0 were f00lish
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New York ,h *
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245
usually for Kingston, Cobourg, or Toronto. They made their way over the
lakes on steamers, in smaller craft, and in one instance by floating across
on a wooden gate—to land at Point Pelee, the ports of Burwell, Rowan,
Talbot, and Stanley, at Long Point and Fort Erie, and elsewhere. The
steamer Arrow, moving between Sandusky and Detroit under its noted
Captain J. W. Keith, transported a large number of fugitives; and small
vessels under Robert Wilson put in with “grain” which had been sent out
from an Ashtabula warehouse for human cargo. Toronto, Brantford, Oak
ville, Collingwood, London, and the village of Shrewsbury, saw sharp
rises in their black populations as a result of such traffic. Others went
among the French near Windsor but, finding them “distant,” moved away
from the Detroit frontier, several establishing a short-lived all-Negro
town, New Kentucky, in 1860. In 1851 the Voice of the Fugitive said that
twenty-five hundred Negroes were at work on the railroad, and Ingersoll
attracted a number once the line was open to Windsor because wood for
the railway engines was cut and stored there. Some few went to the oil
field near Petrolia, at Oil Springs.31
Just how sharp the rise was in specific communities cannot be said. In
1852 Isaac Rice thought there were between one and two thousand Ne
groes in Hamilton, while there were “not far from one hundred” in
Brantford and between two and three hundred in London. He set the
black population of Chatham at fifteen hundred, and on the Detroit fron
tier at four thousand. Two years later Drew found a thousand Negroes in
Toronto, mostly in the northwest section of the city, which then had a
population of forty-seven thousand. He thought there were forty Negroes
in Galt, two hundred in Windsor, five hundred in Amherstburg (of a total
population of two thousand), nearly the same in Colchester (of fifteen
hundred population), and two thousand in or near Chatham of a total
population of six thousand. Dr. Howe found seven hundred Negroes in
St. Catharines, although the census had reported 472, and in Hamilton he
found five hundred where the census had enumerated only 62—unlikely,
given the large numbers reported for nearly a decade earlier. The census
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£ I0* 18591 The Ho™rab>e Elijah Leonard: A
0a}-> n-d->, PP- 47—48; Toronto Globe, Oct. 8, 1858 Sept. 9 1859Orlo Miller, Gargoyles & Gentlemen: A History of St. Paul's Cathedral London
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31. Montreal Gazette, Aug. 10, 1853; Drew, p. 300; London (Ont) Free Press,
June 21, 1926, June 30, 1956; Oakville (Ont.) Weekly Sun, Sept 7, 1960; Siebcrt,
Underground Railroad, pp. 83, 148-49; O. K. Watson, “Along the Talbot Road,”
Kentiana (n.p., 1939), p. 67; O. K. Watson, “Early History of Shrewsbury," Kent
Historical Society, Papers and Addresses, 6 (1924), 83-84; Lauriston, “Negro Col
onies,” p. 96; John Nettleton, “Reminiscences, 1857-1870," Huron Institute, Papers
and Records, 2 (1914), 13-15; Fred London, “Over Lake Erie to Freedom," North
west Ohio Historical Quarterly, 17 (1945), 132-38; Landon, “Fugitive Slaves in Lon
don Ontario before 1860," London and Middlesex Historical Society, Transactions, 10
(1919), 37; Landon, “The Fugitive Slave Law and the Detroit River Frontier, 185061," Detroit Historical Society Bulletin, 7 (1950), 5-9.
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The Blacks in Canada
reported 510 Negroes in Toronto, while Dr. Howe found 934. The proper
numbers were not known and cannot now be recovered, but it is clear
that while the Negroes were not so numerous as subsequent myth-making
and contemporary abolitionist propaganda would lead one to believe,
they nonetheless were substantial, and on occasion—in Chatham, for
example—comprised as much as a third of the population.32
Conditions for the fugitives were, as before 1800, mixed. Some adjusted
readily and soon enjoyed relative prosperity. John W. Lindsey, who could
pass for white, was worth $10,000 or more, as were Aaron Siddles and
Henry Blue of Chatham. John Little and his wife—who moved into
Queen’s Bush—came to have over one hundred acres under good cultiva
tion, could lend a friend $2,000, and owned a horse and carriage. In
London, A. B. Jones, who had arrived penniless, soon owned several
properties, one worth $4,000; and his brother, Alfred T., ran a prosperous
pharmacy. Some fugitives became brakemen on the Great Western Rail
road, which paid well, while others helped clear new lands around Col
chester. Apprentices earned $2.50 a week, and waiters, especially around
Niagara and in Toronto, received wages of $12.00 a month.
Still, lodgings might cost $15.00 a month and earnings were seldom
sufficient to replace clothing left behind, to pay for the journey to Canada
of wives and children who had remained in the South, or to pay doctor’s
bills. Most fugitives, badly dressed for the Canadian winters, arriving
“like frogs in Egypt,” were consumptive: one Toronto woman lost ten
children from tuberculosis.33 Thomas F. Page, a young man from the
upper South, reported “I do not like Canada, or the Provinces. I have been
to St. John, N.B., Lower Province, or Lower Canada, also St Catharines,
C.W., and all around the Canada side, and I do not like it at all. The
people seem to be so queer.” The more frequent sentiment probably lay
closer to that expressed by John H. Hill, a skilled carpenter and an officer
in a company of Negro rifle guards, who wrote to William Still, “I wants
you to let the whole United States know we are satisfied here because I
have seen more Pleasure since I came here than I saw in the U.S. the 24
years that I served my master.” “It is true,” he added the following year,
“that I have to work very hard for comfort but I would not exchange
32. Amherstburg Quarterly Mission Journal, 1, Sept 25, 28, Oct 12, 1852; Drew,
pp. 94-95, 118-19, 136, 147-48, 234-35, 321, 348-49; Siebcrt, pp. 220-21; Howe,
Refugees from Slavery, pp. 15-16. In 1843 Hiram Wilson had put the Negro popula
tion of Canada West at sixteen thousand (BPL, Samuel J. May, Jr. Papers, 1:
circular, Sept 30).
33. London Free Press, June 12, 1954; M. Murray, “Stories of the Underground
Railroad," The Methodist Magazine and Review, 48 (1898), 221-22; Mitchell, UnderGround Railroad, pp. 158-67; Siebert, pp. 205, 223; Drew, pp. 149-53, 198-233,
250, 270-73; Still, Underground Rail Road, pp. 2, 51, 77, 152, 319, 324, 490, 598.
A Continental Abolitionism?
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with ten thousand slave that are equel [jtc] with their masters. I am
Happy, Happy.” “Those that will work,” remarked another, “do well—
those that will not—not; it is the same here as everywhere. It is the best
poor man’s country that I know of.”34
Until the economic panic of 1857, this judgment was a fair one. Jerry
of the famous rescue became a barrel-maker in Kingston, and the equally
famous Shadrach opened a restaurant in Montreal. In Toronto one Lemon
John prospered by peddling his special ice creams about the streets, and in
Saint John the city’s ice trade was the monopoly of a Negro, Robert
Whetsel. Joseph Mink became wealthy by managing a line of stages
running from Toronto. In Colchester, Nathan S. Powell survived by
manufacturing and selling Powell’s Indian Tonic. In Bronte a refugee
opened the first blacksmith shop; in Otterville a fugitive ran the only
saloon. Still others made rope, worked as fishermen, in the brickyards
and slaughterhouses, in livery stables, and as carpenters. Many women
were servants, as they had been in the South, or opened dress-making or
wig shops. In Hamilton, Negroes were in charge of the dead cart during
the 1850s—a fact that cuts two ways—and New Brunswick had a black
hangman who was regarded as standing apart from humanity, as had
been the executioner of Quebec, Mathew Leveille of Martinique, in the
previous century. Many Negroes, it was said, were “well dressed, quite
clean and interesting,” and owned houses that were “patterns of neat
ness.” 35
Indeed, the desire of most fugitives, once they had looked about and
had overcome the initial period of adjustment, was to acquire a house and
land. Most of the whites shared this goal, representative as it was of the
middle-class values to which the fugitives often attached themselves. One,
John Long, had owned land in the area that became Toronto in the 1830s,
34. Still, p. 333, Oct. 6, on Page; pp. 194, 197, Hill to Still, n.d. Pate 1853], and
Sept. 14, 1854; Robert Jones to Still, Aug. 9, 1856, p. 272; and pp. 250-54; Drew,
P. 172.
35. Fort Malden “Fugitive Slave File"; New York Tribune, Oct. 24, 1857; London
Free Press, July 5, 1924, April 30, 1932; Toronto Star, Aug. 11, 1943; NBM, "Whetscl Family" file; The Life of Rev. James Thompson, The World’s Wonder (Rich
mond, Va., 1885), pp. 13-23; Eber M. Pettit, Sketches in the History of the Under
ground Railroad . . . (Fredonia, N.Y., 1879), p. 53; Nina Moore Tiffany, “Stories
of the Fugitive Slaves, II: Shadrach," The New England Magazine, n.s., 2 (1890),
283; Blodwen Davies, Storied York: Toronto Old and New (Toronto, 1931), p. 68;
Marjorie Freeman Campbell, A Mountain and a City: The Story of Hamilton
(Toronto, 1966), p. 113; Lloyd A. Macham, A History of Moncton Town and City,
1855-1965 (Moncton, N.B., 1965), p. 67; A. Carle Smith, The Mosaic Province of
New Brunswick (Saint John, 1965), p. 93; Andrd Lachance, Le Bourreau au Canada
sous le regime frangais (Quebec, 1966), pp. 79-81; Colonial Church and School
Society Report for 1856-7 (PAC microfilm): A-325, p. 55, Nov. 1, 1856.
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A Continental Abolitionism?
The Blacks in Canada
and a number had acquired property in the Niagara district before 1850
and without benefit of communitarian practices. By 1853, one investigator
estimated, 276 Negroes in London owned real estate valued at $13,504—
an average higher than for whites in the city.
In 1862 Dr. Howe found that one in eleven of Malden’s Negroes paid
taxes on property, while one in thirteen in Chatham were so taxed. (In
both cases, one in every three or four whites owned ratable property.)
But in Windsor one in five blacks, and only one in seven whites, were ratepayers. In this case, however, the average assessment on white-owned
property was $18.76, while on black it was $4.18; in Chatham the figures
had been $10.63 and $4.98 respectively.36 And prejudice operated to keep
even those Negroes who could afford better properties from moving else
where.
Few fugitives attempted to deny that they encountered substantial
prejudice. In the 1850s city directories began to designate those residences
and businesses owned by Negroes. Blacks were expelled from camp meet
ings, and those churchmen who—like Cronyra in London—wished to
help educate the fugitive, now argued that separate schools were needed
because of white opposition. Dresden was called “Nigger Hole” by those
who had opposed the Dawn settlement; racial jokes increased in the press;
Negroes who, a decade or two earlier, had been able to employ whites
to work for them no longer could do so. Throughout British North America
blacks were thought, by some, to be responsible for “all the outrageous
crimes, and two thirds of the minor ones”; chicken coops and laundry lines
were said to require special protection where black men were about; and
their women were blamed for an alleged rise in prostitution. Hotels in
Hamilton, Windsor, Chatham, and London refused blacks admission, and
they could not purchase cabin-class tickets on the Chatham steamer. The
Montreal Gazette, turning back to the Nova Scotian experience, suggested
that the fugitives should be sent to Sierra Leone. Beginning in 1855,
auctioneers at the sale of building lots in the Windsor area refused to take
bids from any Negroes, the city’s Herald remarking that an owner had the
right to “preserve his property from deterioration.” Negroes should wish to
stay with their own people, and if they did not they were welcome to
leave. To oppose intermarriage and social mixing was not to be pro
slavery. So long as blacks remained in Canada West, the Herald warned,
they would “ever have to contend with their superiors,” and thus one
36. Edwin C. Giullet, Toronto from Trading Post to Great City (Toronto, 1934),
p. 310; [Archibald Bremner], City of London Ontario. Canada: The Pioneer Period
and the London of To-day (London, 1897), pp. 60-61; Howe, pp. 61-62; Siebert,
p. 232.
249
helped them by refusing to sell them land. Canada West had become,
according to Samuel Ringgold Ward, writing in what John Scoble called
his “belligerent spirit,” “beneath and behind Yankee feeling” in its colorphobia.37
The widely held Canadian view that there was a disproportionate
number of Negroes in prison, jails, or the insane asylum was current well
before 1850—and it cannot be supported. In 1851 the provincial institu
tion for the insane in Canada West had only one Negro among 220
patients. The Reports of Penitentiary Inspectors tended to emphasize the
“high percentage” of Negroes behind bars, while noting that fugitives
educated only to slavery naturally were more prone to petty crime. Nor are
the percentages particularly high: in fact, of the 3,223 persons who
enjoyed Toronto’s jail in 1859, 117 were black. Of 1,057 women committed in 1856, only eight were black; and of the Kingston penitentiary’s
125 prisoners, eight also were Negroes. But each Negro offense received
major publicity: when blacks burned down the barns of three of their
opponents; when a Negro stabbed a colleague in a raffle, another murdered an Indian, and two beat a white to death—all in 1852; when one
Negro killed another over noise in a Negro church in 1853; and when
two black men murdered a mail carrier in 1859 and were hanged. Through
out these years the begging preachers and agents continued to be much
in the news over their suits, assaults, and petty thefts.38 Public opinion
considered that fugitives were too often not punished for minor crimes out
of sympathy for their condition: “it was found,” according to the Montreal
Gazette as early as 1842, “to be a sufficient reason to be an Indian or
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37. Windsor Herald, Oct. 20, Nov. 3, 1855; Montreal Gazette, April 18, Sept. 16,
1851; Sarnia Observer, Nov. 25, 1859; Hamilton Canadian Illustrated News, 1
(1862), 8, 44, (1863), 131; Chambers, Things as They are in America, pp. 2728; Dclany, Niger Valley Exploring Party, p. 71; Ward, Autobiography, pp. 14446, 202; Lauriston, Romantic Kent, p. 383; Edith C. Firth, ed., The Town of York,
1815-1834: A Further Collection of Documents of Early Toronto (Toronto, 1966),
pp. 333-34.
38. See, for example, Windsor Herald, Jan. 4, 1856; London (C.W.) Times,
May 4, 1849; Toronto News of the Week, Aug, 28, Nov. 6, Dec. 24, 1852, March 12,
1853; The Friend of Man, Aug. 30, 1837; Brantford Expositor, July 31, Aug. 6,
1852; the Inspector’s Reports in the Appendixes to the Journal of the House of
Assembly of Upper Canada, 1837-38, and the Journals of the Legislative Assembly
of the Province of Canada, 1841-43, 1860; Linton, Liquor Law, p. 24; and James
Silk Buckingham, Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Other British
Provinces in North America, with a Plan of National Colonization (London, n.d.),
P- 67. Of 5,346 people committed to Toronto jail in 1857, only 78 were Negroes
(W. G. Brownlow and Abram Pryne, Ought American Slavery to be Perpetuated?
. . [Philadelphia, 1858], pp. 237-38).
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The Blacks in Canada
A Continental Abolitionism?
251
Negro to escape the gallows, no matter what crime they may have com
mitted.” 38 In short, the record was broken even before it was played.
This rising tide of prejudice, remarked upon by nearly all of the white
members of Canadian antislavery organizations and many of the refugees
themselves, was ascribed by most to four groups of people. All singled
out the American-born settlers—or those who had acquired “Yankee
ways”—who moved into the Niagara peninsula and, in greater numbers,
into the extreme southwest corner of the province. Most had occasion to
include Irish settlers as a source of anti-Negro sentiment. Others suggested
that former planters from the West Indies and their children—having lost
their patrimony and now displaced from what they considered to have been
a leading position in Imperial society—were enemies of the black man.
Finally, nearly everyone had an amorphous body of villains to blame,
those “lower orders” of whatever ethnic or national origin (including but
not limited to the Irish settlers) with whom the Negroes competed for
work and with whose women black men allegedly were able to make
their way. To prove any of these contentions would be impossible; of
the fugitive at the time no proof was asked. They were, many perceived,
what James G. Birney—twice the Liberty Party’s presidential candidate—
had predicted they would be: “an inferior class" in the “bleak and hyper
borean regions. » 40
Why this should have been so may not be answered clearly. Certainly
imported prejudices played a role. Certainly the pressures created by a
growing awareness of mass Negro arrivals, to compete for labor and
allegedly to add to the crime rate, contributed. The persistence of selfconscious Negro associations, of separate communities, of improvement
societies such as the Sons of Uriah or the Negro Order of Odd Fellows,
and of all-Negro churches, were both a symptom of prejudice and a con
tributor to it Unquestionably the flow of fugitives changed in character
after 1850 as a result of the Fugitive Slave Act, that desperate compromise
by which nationalist American statesmen attempted yet again to hold the
union together. The new fugitives were not only more numerous but
poorer, more ready to take fright, armed and suspicious. Among British
North Americans there was a growing awareness of the many moral
ambiguities thrust upon them by the fugitives and their problems. This
awareness helped to induce that confusion which has always been present
when Canadians have had to deal with issues not of their own making but
arising mostly from the unfortunate circumstance of sharing a continent
with a giant neighbor where confusion and moral ambiguity were magni
fied, more passionate, and seemingly endemic.
In short, and as we have seen, British North Americans shared the
patterns of prejudice found in the North, although these patterns appeared
in colors muted by distance from the central scene of action. So, too, were
these patterns varied even within Canada West, and economic realities
again provided the conditions that led to those differences. Systematic
prejudice—in the schools, in the churches, in the sale of property—was
mild in the eastern part of the southwestern peninsula, in Hamilton, and
north into Toronto, while it was relatively stringent in the western part.
One explanation for this observable difference—noted at the time and
clear from the evidence now—is that Hamilton and Toronto were pros
perous, especially after 1854 and even after 1857 despite the slump, and
that the building trades were in need of much semiskilled labor, so that
Irish and Negro alike could find jobs; while at the frontier on the west,
opposite Detroit, the economy was not able to absorb the new arrivals,
Prejudice, always individual, was also a matter of the moment, the place,
and the market, however, for discrimination was widely practiced in St.
Catharines, despite this geographical generalization.
But if many of the cherished beliefs of Canadians—then and since
about the haven they provided fugitives from federal marshals are myths,
or at least exaggerated, a countervailing fact also remains indisputably
true: in British North America, the Negro remained equal in the eyes of
the law—after the abolition of slavery, and setting aside the growing
tendency toward segregated education, a most damaging exception to be
dealt with in a later chapter. Although challenged in 1851, Negro jurors
and jury foremen served in Toronto and elsewhere, and Negroes gave
evidence with full legal protection. They generally were taxed as the white
man was, were punished in no harsher a manner than any other criminals,
and cast their votes openly and with impunity. British consuls looked after
the black Canadian’s interests when he was abroad with the same care
that any British subject might expect, and even American consuls in the
British provinces treated Negro Canadians with the respect that was their
due.41 If social and economic realities did not conform to legislative and
39. [D. N. Haskell], The Boston Committee in Canada: A Series of Eight Letters
reprinted from the Boston Atlas (Boston, 1851), p. 19; Anti-Slavery Reporter, n.s.,
4 (1856), 134, 166, 229-30; The Provincial Freeman, July 4, 1857.
40. Quoted in William H. and Jane H. Pease, eds., The Antislavery Argument
(Indianapolis, Ind., 1965), p. 46.
41. Anti-Slavery Reporter, June 21, 1843, and n.s., 4 (1856), 230, Voice of the
Fugitive, July 2, 1851; Toronto Globe, Oct 8, 1859; Ottawa Citizen, May 3, 1867«
PRO, BTI/479: Francis Waring, consul, Norfolk, Va., to J. T. Briggs, Oct 25, and
ends., in re New Brunswick Negro Antonio Nicholas; NA, Foreign Semce Post
Records, C.D., Halifax: cases of destitute Negro seamen (e.g., no. 6, R. W. Fraser
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A Continental Abolitionism?
The Blacks in Canada
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to William L. Marcy, Nov. 8, 1853, and no. 7, Dec. 14, 1854); Murray, “AngloAmerican Anti-Slavery Movement," pp. 324-27.
42. A-325, Report for 1856-7, p. 60: Nov. 1.
43. A longer version of the material that follows appears in Robin W. Winks,
“‘A Sacred Animosity’: Abolitionism in Canada," in Martin Duberman, ed., The
Anti-Slavery Vanguard: New Essays on the Abolitionists (Princeton, NJ., 1965), PP301-42.
*
253
events in and after 1850 in particular—the Larwill election campaign, a
public petition relating to segregated schools, and the passage of the Fugitive
Slave Bill—made such a society imperative in the minds of those who had
followed the color question in the United States with growing apprehension.
There was a ready-made group of Negro sympathizers in the white
Canadians who had contributed to the support of Wilberforce, Dawn, and
Elgin.44
Foremost among Canada’s abolitionists was George Brown, the powerful
editor of the province’s most important newspaper, the Toronto Globe.
Brown had shown an interest in the condition of the Negro in Canada
from the journal’s inception in 1844. He, his brother Gordon, his father
Peter, and his sister Isabella formed the nucleus of an antislavery society
in Toronto; and Isabella’s husband, Thomas Henning, was the first secre
tary of the Canadian Anti-Slavery Society as well as a member of the
Globe's editorial staff until 1854.45 Far more restrained than Garrison’s
Liberator and far more forthright than the lesser abolition sheets, the
Globe provided the antislavery group with a forum for the “sacred ani
mosity” its owners held toward slavery.40 In his paper Brown attacked
Henry Clay, the Fugitive Slave Law, Larwill, Prince, and separate schools
with equal force, for—as he wrote—Canadians had the “duty of preserv
ing the honour of the continent” against slavery.47
The Toronto-based group were able to ground their work on previously
established channels of communication. In 1827 Samuel Cornish and a
Quebec-educated Jamaican, John Browne Russwurm, editors of Freedom’s
Journal, which they published in New York for two years, had sent agents
into Canada to solicit support. Negroes in Windsor had established a short
lived antislavery society there, and Upper Canadians, led by John Roaf,
a Congregational minister, had attended a temperance convention in Sara
toga Springs, New York, in 1837, making contact with many American
abolitionists.48 As a result, Reverend Ephraim Evans, a Wesleyan Meth-
legal forms, those forms at least limited the ways in which prejudice
might make itself felt.
Still, the hierarchy of the unequal will have its way. In British North
America, as in the United States, the Kingdom of Individuals would be
long in coming. Even those who felt most committed in that cause, mem
bers of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada and others who worked with
the abolitionists to cleanse North America of that which George Brown
accepted as a continental rather than merely American stain, were limited
in their effectiveness by that sense of paternalism which may so easily shade
into a racism no less hurtful for its presumptive benevolence; for such
paternalism reveals the quiet arrogance of those who feel that they have
all to give to an underprivileged group and nothing to learn from it
Can one condone wholly—or condemn entirely—the blind, well-meaning
certitude of that missionary-teacher who, reporting to the Colonial Church
and School Society in 1856 of her Negro charges, concluded that “The
worse they are, the more need there is for British Christians to instruct,
enlighten and reform them”? 42
The major thrust in the Canadian contribution to worldwide abolition
ism came not from the British mission boards, the self-segregated, selfhelp communities, the begging ministers, or the isolated Negroes of the
Maritime Provinces. These groups were interested in helping those blacks
who were citizens in British North America and in easing the adjustment of
the fugitives. Certainly individual members of some of the communities
helped to flay slavery through the press or hoped to weaken it by journeys
south of the border to guide fugitives toward freedom. Certainly, too,
many reasoned that any aid given to fugitives in British North America
made the provinces additionally attractive, and that by creating a magnet
for runaway slaves, they were helping to sap the strength of the institution.
But as collective bodies they did not attack slavery directly. Abolitionism
in British North America was expressed through attempts to subdue
prejudice within the provinces and efforts to lend vocal and moral support,
and limited financial aid, to the more exposed but also far more effective
abolitionist groups in the United States.43
The first major Canadian antislavery society was created to combat the
growing evidence of organized, group prejudice in Canada West. Three
ilk_____
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44. On the Negro issue in politics, see Winks, “Abolitionism in Canada," pp. 31718, n. 28.
45. J. M. S. Careless, Brown of the Globe, 1: The Voice of Upper Canada, 18181859 (Toronto, 1959), pp. 102-03; Syracuse Univ., Gerrit Smith Miller Papers:
Henning to Smith, Feb. 2, 13, 1861, Oct. 12, 1863; Columbia Univ., Gay Papers:
Henning to Gay, May 27, 1852, Feb. 18, 1854, April 11, 1855.
46. A phrase drawn from the Toronto Globe's notice, on June 8, 1860, of
Charles Sumner’s speech before the Senate, “The Barbarism of Slavery." See The
Works of Charles Sumner (Boston, 1874), J, 124.
47. See, for example, editorials of Feb. 7, March 19, May 28, Aug. 10, Sept 19,
Oct. 5, Nov. 9, 1850; Feb. 22, March 6, 27, April 3, 12, 18, May 10, 13, June 20,
Sept. 18, 25, Nov. 27, Dec. 18, 1851; and March 24, 1852.
48. Aptheker, Abolitionist Movement, p. 33; Washington, Story of the Negro, 2,
292-93; M. A. Garland, “Some Frontier and American Influences in Upper Canada
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Lyman Wilmot House
Description
An account of the resource
This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad.
Creator
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Deerfield Public Library
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Deerfield Public Library
Publisher
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Deerfield Public Library
Date
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2002
Language
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English
Identifier
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DPL.0013
Text
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Dublin Core
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Title
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A Continental Abolitionism?
The Blacks in Canada: A History
Description
An account of the resource
Photocopy of a chapter from The Blacks in Canada entitled "A Continental Abolitionism?" with some highlighting.
Creator
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Winks, Robin W.
Publisher
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Yale University Press
Date
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1971
Language
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English
Identifier
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DPL.0013.032
1851 Canadian Census
1861 Canadian Census
A Flight Across Ohio: The Escape of William Wells Brown from Slavery
A Narrative of the Adventures and Escapes of Moses Roper from American Slavery
A Quaker Pioneer: Laura Haviland Superintendent of the Underground
A Sabbath Among the Runaway Negroes at Niagara
A Sacred Animosity: Abolitionism in Canada
A Short History of the American Negro
A Woman's Life Work
Abolitionism
Abolitionist Movement
Abolitionist Press
Abolitionists
Abram Pryne
Africa
African American Churches
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
Albany New York
Along the Talbot Road
Alvin McCudy
Amelia Harris
American Anti-Slavery Society
American Baptist Free Mission Society
American Civil War
American Philosophical Society
American Revolution
Americanborn Canadians
Amherstburg Ontario Canada
Anderson Extradition Case
Anglo American Anti-Slavery Movement
Anti-Slavery Reporter
Anti-Slavery Society of Canada
Antonio Nicholas
Aptheker
Archibald Bremner
Arrow
Arthur Huff Fauset
Ashtabula Ohio
Auburn New York
Augustus Diamond
Austin Steward
Authentic Narratives
Autobiography
Baltimore Sun
Baptist Church
Benjamin Brawley
Benjamin Drew
Bond and Free: or
Booker T. Washington
Boston Atlas
Boston Massachusetts
Brantford Expositor
Brantford Ontario Canada
British Mission Boards
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British Provinces
Brown of the Globe
Buffalo New York
Burwell Ontario Canada
C. Lightfoot Roman
Cambridge Massachusetts
Canada
Canada East
Canada Nova Scotia New Brunswick and the Other British Provinces in North America with a Plan of National Colonization
Canada West
Canada's Part in Freeing the Slave
Canadian Antislavery Organizations
Canadian Antislavery Societies
Canadian Censuses
Canadian Liberty Political Party
Canadian Racial Prejudice
Canadian Racism
Canadian Segregation
Cape Vincent New York
Carter G. Woodson
Charles Sumner
Chatham Ontario Canada
Chatham Steamer
Christian Union Church
Cincinnati Ohio
City of London Ontario Canada: The Pioneer Period and the London of Today
Cleveland Ohio
Cobourg Ontario Canada
Collingwood Ontario Canada
Colonial Church and School Society
Columbia University
Columbia University Gay Papers
Communal Settlements
Congregational Church
Creighton
Cronym
D.N. Haskell
Dawn
Detroit Historical Society
Detroit Historical Society Bulletin
Detroit Michigan
Dictionary of American Biography
Dr. Howe
Dresden Ontario Canada
Drew
Earl Conrad
Early History of Shrewsbury
Edith C. Firth
Edwin C. Giullet
Edwin Larwill
Elgin
Elijah Leonard
Ephraim Evans
ETc.
Excelsior
Folklord of Lunenburg County Nova Scotia
Folklore from Nova Scotia
Folklore from the Half-Breeds in Nova Scotia
Foreign Service Post Records
Fort Erie
Fort Malden Ontario Canada
Foul Language
Francis Waring
Fred Landon
Frederick Douglass
Free African Americans
Freedom's Journal
French
From Dixie to Canada: Romance and Reality of the Underground Railroad
Fugitive African Americans
Fugitive Slave Act
Fugitive Slave Narratives
Fugitive Slaves
Fugitive Slaves in London Ontario Before 1860
Galt Ontario Canada
Gara
Gargoyles and Gentlemen: A History of St. Paul's Cathedral London Ontario
Garrison Liberator
George Brown
Goodbye to Uncle Tom
Gordon Brown
Gordon Sellar
Grand Rapids Michigan
Halifax Nova Scotia
Hamilton Canadian Illustrated News
Hamilton Ontario Canada
Harriet Tubman
Harriet Tubman Memorial Home
Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People
Harvard University
Harvard University Houghton Library
Harvard University Houghton Library Siebert Papers
Haviland
Helen Creighton
Henry Bibb
Henry Clay
Henson
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Historical Statistics of Canada
Homer Uri Johnson
Hungary
Huron Institute
Huron Institute Papers and Records
Illinois
Immigration
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Irish Settlers
Isaac Rice
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Israel Campbell
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J.M.S. Careless
J.T. Briggs
J.W. Keith
J.W. Loguen
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James Egert Allen
James G. Birney
James Silk Buckingham
Jane H. Pease
Jermain W. Loguen
Jerry Rescue
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John Atkinson
John Browne Russwurm
John Nettleton
John P. Jewett
John Roaf
John Scoble
Journal of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada
Journal of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada Inspector's Reports Appendixes
Journal of the International Folk Music Council
Journal of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society
Journals of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada
Junius
K.A.H. Buckley
Kenneth M. Stampp
Kentiana
Kentucky
Kingston Ontario Canada
Kingston Penitentiary
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Larry Gara
Larwill Election Campaign
Laura Haviland
Letters
Letters Largely Personal and Private
Levi Coffin: The Friend of the Slave
Lewis Clarke
Lewiston New York
Lexington Kentucky
Life and Times of Frederick Douglass
Liquor Law
Loguen
London and Middlesex Historical Society
London England
London Free Press
London Ontario Canada
London Times
Long Point
Lucretia Coffin Mott
Lunenburg County Nova Scotia
M.A. Garland
M.C. Urquhart
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Martha Coffin Wright
Martin Duberman
Methodist Church
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Mildred E. Danforth
Missionary Groups
Mitchell
Montreal Gazette
Montreal Star
Moses Roper
Narrative
Narrative of the Sufferings of Lewis Clarke
National Anti-Slavery Standard
National Museum of Canada
National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 117
Native Americans
Negro in Literature
Negro Order of Odd Fellows
New Hampshire
New Kentucky Ontario Canada
New Orleans Commerical Bulletin
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New York Tribune
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Niagara Suspension Bridge
Niger Valley Exploring Party
Norfolk Virginia
North-Side View of Slavery
Northern Border Cities
Northern Prejudices
Northern Racism
Northwest Ohio Historical Quarterly
Nova Scotia Canada
O.K. Watson
Oakville Ontario Canada
Oakville Weekly Sun
Oberlin Ohio
Ogdensburg New York
Ohio
Ohio State Historical Society
Ohio State Historical Society Siebert Papers
Oil Springs Ontario Canada
Ontario Historical Society
Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records
Orlo Miller
Orwell Ohio
Oswego New York
Ottawa Canada
Ottawa Citizen
Ought American Slavery to be Perpetuated?
Over Lake Erie to Freedom
Owen Sound Comet
Oxford Rhodes House Anti-Slavery Papers
Paternalism
Patsey Williams
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Pennsylvania History
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Pennsylvania State Historical Society
Peter Brown
Petrolia Ontario Canada
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Prince
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Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
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Public Opinion
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Reports of Penitentiary Inpectors
Robert Sellar
Robert Wilson
Robin W. Winks
Rochester New York
Romantic Kent
Roper
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Royal Society of Canada Proceedings and Transactions
Samuel Cornish
Samuel Ringgold Ward
Sandusky Ohio
Sarah Bradford
Saratoga Springs New York
Sarnia Observer
School Records
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Shrewsbury Ontario Canada
Sierra Leone
Slave States
Smith College
Smith College Sophia Smith Collection
Some Frontier and American Influences in Upper Canada
Some Items of Negro-Canadian Folk-Lore
Songs from Nova Scotia
Sons of Uriah
Sophia Smith
Southern Slave Songs
St. Catharines A to Z
St. Catharines and Lincoln Historical Society
St. Catharines Journal
St. Catharines Ontario Canada
St. Lawrence River
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Story of the Negro
Stratford Beacon
Syracuse New York
Syracuse Public Library
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Syracuse University Gerrit Smith Miller Papers
Systematic Prejudice
Talbot Ontario Canada
Tax Records
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Text. of Rev. Wm. Harrison's Sermon at Baptist Church Amherstburg
The Anti-Slavery Vanguard: New Essays on the Abolitionists
The Antislavery Argument
The Barbarism of Slavery
The Blacks in Canada: A History
The Boston Committee in Canada
The Friend of Man
The Fugitive Slave Law and the Detroit River Frontier
The Honorable Elijah Leonard: A Memoir
The Journal of American Folk-Lore
The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad
The Negro in New York
The Negro in the Abolitionist Movement
The Negro Migration to Canada after the Passing of the Fugitive Slave Act
The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly
The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South
The Provincial Freeman
The Rev. J.W. Loguen as a Slave and as a Freeman
The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery
The Town of York 1815-1834: A Further Collection of Documents of Early Toronto
The Underground Rail Road: A Record of Facts
The Underground Railroad
The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom
The Underground Railroad: Legend or Reality?
The Voice of the Fugitive
The Works of Charles Sumner
Things As They Are in America
Thomas Henning
Thomas Nye
Toledo Ohio
Toronto from Trading Post to Great City
Toronto Globe
Toronto Jail
Toronto News of the Week
Toronto Ontario Canada
True Makers of Canada: The Narrative of Gordon Sellar who Emigrated to Canada in 1825
Tubman
Uncle Tom's Cabin
Underground Railroad
Underground Railroad Superintendent
Utica New York
Vienna Austria
Voice of the Fugitive
Voting Records
W.G. Grownlow
W.H. Withrow
W.J. Wintemberg
W.M.G.
Ward
Washington
Wesleyan Methodist Church
West Indies
Whiskey
White Immigration
Wilbur H. Siebert
William Edward Farrison
William H. Allison
WIlliam H. Pease
William Harrison
William L. Marcy
William M. Mitchell
William Still
William Still and the Underground Railroad
William Wells Brown
William Wilberforce
Windsor Anti-Slavery Society
Windsor Herad
Windsor Herald
Windsor Ontario Canada
Yearnings for Freedom
-
https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/3158f9c03914a70f6b611d777a3d3d9a.pdf
576c28f8391258cc38d62652f4bdf5a2
PDF Text
Text
27 FEB 2002
Call Number
AUTHOR
TITLE
EDITION
PUBLISHER
DESCRIPT
BIBLIOG
SUBJECTS
ISBN
DVNIX #
Deerfield Public Library
Circulation
Adult Nonfiction
973.7115 TUR
03:58pm
UU Port 594
Status : Check Shelf
Turner, Glennette Tilley.
The underground railroad in Illinois / by Glennette Tilley
Turner ; introduction by Juliet E.K. Ualker.
1st ed.
Glen Ellyn, IL : Neuman Educational Publishing, 2001.
xix, 285 p.
ill., maps, ports. ; 23 cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 246-266) and index.
1) Underground railroad — Illinois.
2) Slavery — United States.
3) Fugitive slaves — Illinois — History.
0938990055 Cpbk.)
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In addition I
bookstores,;
~ Climate
c£“SSs^s=s==s
~ Rivers and
Underground Railroad in Illinois.
So much has been written on this topic in the meantime, the reader should also refer to Backs
in Print, Illinois Libraries, (Vol. 80, No. 4) and other library and on-lme resources such as.
~ Indians of
~ Population
- Flora and I
- http://www.cr.nps.gov/ugrr
~ Religion
~ http://www.ugrr.org/ugrr/learn/jp-bib.html
- Treaties
- www.nationalgeographic.com/features/99/railroad/randl.html, and
- Politics
- Northwest'
State Library’s web page.
- For more information on the multi-state UGRR operations, consult the National Park Service
Underground Railroad Special Resource Studi and the first web site listed above.
~ Visit http://sunsite.unc.edu/docsouth and http://vi.uh.edu/pages/mintz/primary.htrm
for slave narratives. See Born in Bondage by Marie Jenkins Schwartz (Harvard University
i
i
~ Lincoln-Doi
;:
.
;
:
~ Fur trade
~ Early modes
r
Press) to learn about the lives of enslaved children.
~ Refer to these periodicals: National Geographic. July 1984; the Sunday Magazine of the
Chicago Tribune, Summer 2000; and the magazine of the National Parks and Conservation
Association, July/August 1998.
! ;
i
~ Illinois Con;
!u
~ Inn, taverns.
-
~ Early trails
v
~ View the following videos:
. “The Underground Railroad: Connections to Freedom and Science” video produced
by Classroom for the Future in cooperation with NASA Headquarter
(http://core.nasa.gov);
. “The Underground Railroad in Illinois” and “Trail Through DuPage County”
(JMDoggett@aol.com); keyword “Underground Railroad ;
. “The Underground Railroad” produced by and available from The History Channel
~ Education
-Salt and lead
V
- Mills
I
/
!•
~ Play games such as “Escape” (www.UGRR-Illinois.com).
- Occupations
- Historic cour
II
Sing along with audiotapes of “Songs of the Underground Railroad.”
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Bibliography
Ir
1850
Vidi. MR. FRANK,
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a.
THE UNDERGROUND MAIL-AGENT Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo & Co. 1853.
•i.-
1860
H. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD: FROM SLAVERY TO FREEDOM.
Mitchell, William
London: W. Tweedie 1860. (Reprint 1970)
Bl
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i
pJllBlU
In addition to his work for
John Jones,
the Undergrou nd Railroad and repeal
of the Black Codes, he was active in the
Negro convention movement for many
R after the Civil War. He worked
with inventors S.R. Scottron and Lems
Sand. Laura S. A WOMAN'S LIFE WORK: LABORS AND EXPERIENCES OF LAURA S. HAV1LAND. Salem, NH: 1881. (Reprint 1984)
II,
;
5
Vr
£ssas^ts:sssMS=5ff
■
Collection, Chicago Public Library
: ROMANCE AND REALITY OF THE UNDERGROWI^^IERO^^^weulo^H:^H. U.Johnson. 1896. (Reprint in 1970)
a;
|i:
HANNAH COURAGEOUS. New York:
Long, Laura.
Longman, 1939.
.
wih.ir THE underground RAILROAD TN
SSS'SS
Antiquarian Society, 1936.
Swift, Httdegarde Hoyt
DOM: A STORY OF _T CM ^ fictionaUz(.d account of
Harcourt. Brace, & ••
rnntainS reproductions of
the life of Harriet Tubman. Contains repr
the dialect of the period.
T. UP FROM SLAVERY. AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY
•
™-SS,S—
Siebert, Wilbur Henry.
New York: MacMillan, 1898. (Rep
map of routes.
’
York- Random House. 1958. A story about
^to'Tsvhoi^the“Tof rTttnni“E°°-ion-on theUnderground Railroad. Based on the
;
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W adventures of the author's grandparents.
Severance, Frank Hayward. OLD TRAILS ON THE NIAGARA FRONTIER.
^ ^ story 0f Corrie. a
Cleveland, OH:
Burrows Brothers, 1903.
l?;
northern army.
1910
1,
my story of the civil war and the underground railButler, Marvin Benjamin.
United Brethren Publishing Establishment. 1914. An account of
ROAD. Huntington. IN: The
service in the 44th regiment Indiana volunteers.
..
Cockrum, William Monroe.
The struggles of the new
Mississippi cotton country.
247
HISTORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD AS IT WAS CON-
246
t .
. ;T
.
. Garden City, NY:
Washington, Booker
Doubleday, 1933.
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The Underground Railroad in Illinois
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a to Connecticut
Howard, Elizabeth. NORTH WINDS BLOW FREE. New York: W. Morrow. 1949.
Philo Carpenter operated Under
ground Railroad stations in his home
and in the First Baptist Congregational
Church. His home in Chicago was the
UGRR station where Israel Blodgett of
Downers Grove and John Coe of
Hinsdale took passengers. Carpenter's
brother was married to the sister of
Julius Warren, founder of Warrenville.
Meadowcroft, Enid La Monte. BY SECRET RAILWAY. New York: T. Y. Crowell Co 1948 n™ oslave boy Bed 1860 to the home of David Morgan in Chicago He is betrayed by a boarder who ^H
the'u^e^d'RloaDdaVid’ ^
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way of
McMeekin. Isabella. JOURNEY CAKE. New YorkMessner. 1942. In 1794 Juba, a free woman of color
takes six motherless white children into Kentucky where
their father has gone to settle.
Sterling, Dorothy. CAPTAIN OF THE PLANTER: THE
STORY OF ROBERT SMALLS. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1958. Biography of Robert Smalls, who was bom a slave, and during the Civil War
piloted a captured Confederate boat past the guns of Fort Sumter and delivered it to the Union
forces. Later he became a leader of his people and was sent to Congress. He suffered humiliation
during Reconstruction because he refused to compromise his principles.
S
Nolen. Eleanor Weakley. A JOB FOR JEREMIAH.
London: New York: Oxford University Press, 1940. A lit
tle slave boy tries many jobs while selecting his future
trade.
FREEDOM TRAIN: THE STORY OF HARRIET TUBMAN. New York: Scholastic Book Services,
1954. A biography of Harriet Tubman as a conductor on the Underground Railroad.
Wriston, Hildreth Tyler. SUSAN’S SECRET. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. 1957.
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Yates, Elizabeth. AMOS FORTUNE, FREE MAN. New York Puffin Books, 1950. (Reprints 1963,
1989) A biography of Amos Fortune, an eighteenth-century African prince. After being captured
by slave traders, he was brought to Massachusetts where he remained a slave until he was able to
buy his freedom at sixty years old.
L.C. Paine Freerer was a prominent
lawyer who settled in Chicago in 1836
and died in Wheaton in 1878. He made
Underground Railroad passengers and
touring black antislavery speakers wel
come in his home. He encountered per
sonal danger when he served armed
court officials with legal warrants. On
one occasion he and a party on horse
back chased a party of slave catchers
nearly across the state of Illinois in an
attempt to free an enslaved man, but
without success.
1940
; •:
Allen, Merritt Parmelee. BATTLE LANTERNS. New York: Longmans, 1949. About a series of
adventures which befall a young man during the Revolutionary War. (Reprint 1967)
Buckmaster, Henrietta. LET MY PEOPLE GO: THE STORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD
AND THE GROWTH OF THE ABOLITION MOVEMENT. New York: Harper. 1941.
ns.
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Riley, Louise. TRAIN FOR TIGER LILY. New York: Viking,
1954. Tiger Lily is a magical place where a chain of fantastic
events is set off by the arrival of a train on which there are
four children two animals, and a magician train porter.
Steinman, Beatrice. THIS RAILROAD DISAPPEARS. New
York: F. Watts, 1958. Thirteen -year-old Seth convinces
his parents and neighborhood abolitionists that he can be
trusted as a conductor on the Underground Railroad.
J
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Petry. Ann Lane. HARRIET TUBMAN: CONDUCTOR ON
THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: Crowell.
1955. Biography emphasizing the character and personality
of Harriet Tubman, whose unshakable faith led her to guide
hundreds of slaves to freedom by the Underground Railroad.
Siebert, Wilbur Henry. THE MYSTERIES OF OHIO’S
UNDERGROUND RAILROADS. Columbus: Long's
College Book Co. 1951.
I
The Underground Railroad in Illinois
Curtis, Anna Louis. STORIES OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: The Island
Workshop Press Co-op, 1941.
1950
Bontemps. Arna. FREDERICK DOUGLASS: SLAVE
FIGHTERS, FREEMAN. New York: Knopf, 1959. A
biography of the runaway slave who devoted his life to
the abolition of slavery and the fight for Black rights.
Breyfogle, William x. MAKE FREE: THE STORY OF
THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. Philadelphia:
Lippincott, 1958.
Buckmaster, Henrietta. FLIGHT TO FREEDOM: THE
STORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New
York: Crowell, 1958. A history of the founding and opera
tion of the Underground Railroad with background mate
rial on slavery, the growth of the abolition movement in
spite of opposition in the North. The leaders of both
races and the role of the African American after the Civil
War includes many accounts of the experiences of escap-
248
249
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Fnstein S HARRIET TUBMAN: GUIDE TO FREEDOM. Champaign. IL: Garrard Publishing Co.,
1968. Born a slave but determined to be free, Harriet Tubman ran away from slavery and returned
ma ny times to free her enslaved people.
Fisher, Aileen Lucia. A LANTERN IN THE WINDOW.
New York: T. Nelson. 1957. Twelve-year-old Peter goes to
live with his Quaker uncle whose farm on the bank of the
Ohio River gives him a view of the steamboats he loves
and a role in the Underground Railroad.
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CANALBOAT TO FREEDOM. New York: Dial Press, 1966. This book describes a
Falls, Thomas.
friendship between two boys one a white teenage otphan bound out on a canalboat and the other a
Bhck deckhand. The deckhand protects the otphan front the cruelty of the captatn. and the boy tn
turn joins the deckhand in his Underground Railroad activities.
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Hagler, Margaret. LARRY AND THE FREEDOM MAN.
New York: Lothrop. 1959. A twelve-year-old white boy and
his uncle, The Freedom Man. help Daniel a slave boy and
his family obtain their freedom when they meet on a jour
ney to Kansas.
I960
Bacmeister. Rhoda. W. VOICES EN THE NIGHT.
Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs, 1965. New England and an
Underground Railroad station are the background for this
story. When Jeanie’s widowed mother is forced to break
up her family because she cannot take care of them, Jeanie
is sent to live with the Aldens, who secretly operate a station.
Bradford. Sarah. HARRIET TUBMAN: THE MOSES OF
HER PEOPLE. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel. 1961. A story of
Harriet Tubman, the illiterate escaped slave who made
nineteen journeys deep into the South to escort over 300
slaves to freedom. The book deals mostly with the excit
ing details of her pilgrimages, but also stresses her fervent
religious motivation.
*
The Underground Railroad in Illinois
Douglass, Frederick. LIFE AND TIMES OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS. Ed by Barbara Rirchie. New
York- Crowell, 1966. An adaptation of the last revision (1892) by the author of a book first pub-' '■" >
lished in 1842. It is a story of Douglass’ escape from slavery and his rise to prominence.
'
ing slaves.
Douglass, Marjory Stoneman. FREEDOM RIVER. Old
Tappan, NJ: Scribner, 1953. A tale of three boys - one
white one black and one a Seminole Indian - who find
their separate freedoms.
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Joseph Henry Hudlun, Sr. was a
member of the Chicago Board of
Trade for forty years. During the
Great Chicago Fire he rescued
many valuable docments. His oil
portrait hangs in the Board's Hall
of Celebrities. The home he and
Anna Hudlun built near Dearborn
Station was one of the first built in
Chicago by black owners. They
operated
an
Underground
Railroad station there. Courtesy of
the Vivian G. Harsh Collection,
Wrighf a Quaker, and carried messages back and forth, wrapped in foil in a decayed tooth.
Ssasbsssssasjsasasaa
been strengthened.
THE LIBERTY LINE: THE LEGEND OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD.
Lexington: University of Kentucky Ptess, 1961. The author questions and attempts to determine
the extent to which the Underground Railroad accounts are factual.
Gara, Larry
Chicago Public Library
Browin, Frances WUliams. LOOKING FOR ORLANDO. New York: Criterion Books, 1961.
Carrighar, Sally. THE GLASS DOVE. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962.
Clark, Margaret Gogg. FREEDOM CROSSING. New York: Funk & WagnaUs, 1969. After spend
ing four years with relatives in the South, a fifteen-year-old girl accepts the idea that slaves are
property and is horrified to learn when she returns North that her home is a station on
Underground Railroad.
Danforth. Mildred E. A QUAKER PIONEER: LAURA HAV1LAND, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE
UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: Exposition Press, 1961.
Children, 1967.
asssssasrsfflarssw
to the North.
Reconstruction of the 1870’s and the desegregation of the 1950 s to the rio s
251
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The Underground Railroad in Illinois
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ing slaves.
Douglass, Marjory Stoneman. FREEDOM RIVER. Old
Tappan, NJ: Scribner, 1953. A tale of three boys - one
white one black and one a Seminole Indian - who find
their separate freedoms.
il,1
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Fisher, Aileen Lucia. A LANTERN IN THE WINDOW.
New York: T. Nelson, 1957. Twelve-year-old Peter goes to
live with his Quaker uncle whose farm on the bank of the
Ohio River gives him a view of the steamboats he loves
and a role in the Underground Railroad.
v
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5
Hagler, Margaret. LARRY AND THE FREEDOM MAN.
New York: Lothrop, 1959. A twelve-year-old white boy and
his uncle, The Freedom Man, help Daniel a slave boy and
his family obtain their freedom when they meet on a jour
ney to Kansas.
■
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Ii
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Bacmeister, Rhoda. W. VOICES EN THE NIGHT.
Indianapolis. IN: Bobbs, 1965. New England and an
Underground Railroad station are the background for this
story. When Jeanie’s widowed mother is forced to break
up her family because she cannot take care of them, Jeanie
is sent to live with the Aldens, who secretly operate a sta
tion.
; I1,
Bradford, Sarah. HARRIET TUBMAN: THE MOSES OF
HER PEOPLE. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel, 1961. A story of
Harriet Tubman, the illiterate escaped slave who made
nineteen journeys deep into the South to escort over 300
slaves to freedom. The book deals mostly with the excit
ing details of her pilgrimages, but also stresses her fervent
religious motivation.
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shed in 1842. It .s a story of Douglass escape from slavery and his rise to prominence.
Epstein, S. HARRIET TUBMAN: GUIDE TO FREEDOM. Champaign IL- Garrard
P
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Falls, Thomas. CANALBOAT TO FREEDOM. New York: Dial Press, 1966. This book describes a
friendship between two boys one a
Black deckhand.
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Joseph Henry Hudlun, Sr. was a
member of the Chicago Board of
Trade for forty years. During the
Great Chicago Fire he rescued
many valuable docments. His oil
portrait hangs in the Board's Hall
of Celebrities. The home he and
Anna Hudlun built near Dearborn
Station was one of the first built in
Chicago by black owners. They
operated
an
Underground
Railroad station there. Courtesy of
the Vivian G. Harsh Collection,
Chicago Public Library
h
k
a EYES AND ears OF THE CIVIL WAR. New York: Criterion Books 1963
TS,ha r
S’,a T"™ Bsl*ned and rePorted t0 northern generals or copied maps
H hS' “ SU4Ch,aS McCleIlan refijsed t0 brieve in their intelligence; but
P
d‘S.C0Vrered l.he freed slave* J°hn ScobeH. who became ostensibly an entertainer but actu-
Gara. Larry THE LIBERTY LINE: THE LEGEND OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD
Browin. Frances Williams. LOOKING FOR ORLANDO. New York: Criterion Books, 1961.
•:
Carrighar, Sally. THE GLASS DOVE. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 1962.
Claris, Margaret Gogg. FREEDOM CROSSING. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969. After spend
ing four years with relatives in the South, a fifteen-year-old girl accepts the idea that slaves are
property and is horrified to learn when she returns North that her home is a station on
Underground Railroad.
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ftomAriT ^EAL^WAY H0ME- Indianapolis: Bobbs-MerriU. 1969. Two slave boys run away
to the North H CW>]m* plantatl0n in an attemPt to reach their freed father five hundred miles
Udenburg, Thomas J. and William S. McFeely. THE BLACK MAN IN THE LAND OF EQUALITY.
ew or . ayden Book Co., 1969. Traces the history of the black man in America through the
Reconstruction of the 1870’s and the desegregation of the 1950’s to the riots of the 1960’s.
Danforth, Mildred E. A QUAKER PIONEER: LAURA HAVILAND. SUPERINTENDENT OF THE
UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: Exposition Press, 1961.
250
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The Underground Railroad in Illinois
*
Lawrence, Jacob. HARRIET AND THE PROMISED LAND. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968.
(Reprint 1993) A brief biography in verse about Harriet Tubman and her dedicated efforts to lead
her fellow slaves to freedom.
\(?i
black Quaker member of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery
Society, secretary of the Philadelphia Vigilance
Committees active abolitionist, and son of two sla ves.
worked as an agent on the Underground Railroad. He
interviewed “passengers" in order to gain information
that would enable family members to locate loved ones
in Canada. This book is a compilation of those inter
views he recorded in narrative form, as weU as letters
and newspaper clippings about slavery and the run
aways.
Lester. Julius, ed. TO BE A SLAVE. New York: Dial Press. 1968. A compilation selected from vari
ous sources and arranged chronologically of the reminiscences of slaves and ex-slaves about the
experiences from the leaving of Africa through the Civil War and into the early twentieth century.
Loguen, Jermain Wesley. THE REV. J. W. LOGUEN. AS A SLAVE AND AS A FREEMAN; A NAR
RATIVE OF REAL LIFE. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1968. (Reprint 1859)
McGovern, Ann. RUNAWAY SLAVE: THE STORY OF HARRIET TUBMAN. New York: Four
Winds Press (Scholastic), 1965. A simply told biography of Harriet Tubman which gives a vivid
account of her role as a conductor on the Underground Railroad.
WANTED—DEAD OR ALIVE: THE TRUE STORY OF HARRIET TUBMAN. New York: Four
Winds Press, 1965. A biography of the slave who escaped to freedom, then returned and led three
hundred other slaves to the North by way of the Underground Railroad.
McPherson. James M. THE NEGRO’S CIVIL WAR: HOW NEGROES FELT AND ACTED DURING
THE WAR FOR THE UNION. New York: Pantheon, 1965. The author presents documentary evi
dence from Black and abolitionist newspapers, pamphlets, letters, speeches and official records to
show that Blacks actively participated and many became leaders in the emancipation of the slaves
from 1860 to 1865.
Patterson, Lillie. FREDERICK DOUGLASS. Champaign. IL: Garrard Publishing Co., 1965. The
reader follows Frederick through his increasing hatred of slavery and his escape. His home in New
York became one of the Underground Railroad stations for fleeing slaves.
Sterling. Dorothy. FOREVER FREE: THE STORY OF THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION.
Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 1963. Describes the events leading up to the signing of the
Emancipation Proclamation that freed over four million slaves in the United States.
'
i
Anna Elizabeth Lewis Hudlun was
known as the “Fire Angel" because of
the hospitality she extended to fire vic
tims during the Chicago fires. In 1871
she and Joseph Hudlun opened their
five room home to five families—some
black and some white. Their home was
a mecca of social and civic activity. It
was an Underground Railroad station
before and during the Civil War.
Courtesy of the Vivian G. Harsh
Collection, Chicago Public Library
Williams, James. LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF JAMES
WILLIAMS. A FUGITIVE SLAVE. WITH A FULL
DESCRIPTION OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD.
Saratoga, CA: R. & E Research Associates, 1969.
Williamson. Joanne. AND FOREVER FREE New York:
Knopf, 1966. The social and political scene in New York
City during the years leading up to the Emancipation
Proclamation is shown through the story of an eighteenyear-old German immigrant who befriends a runaway slave.
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and gave courage and inspiration to two co-workers.
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Tom, who helped many slaves escape to freedom and founded a settlement for Blacks in Canada.
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Still. William. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: Amo Press, 1968. William Still.
Strother, Horatio T. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD
IN CONNECTICUT. Middletown. CT: Wesleyan
University Press, 1962.
1970
BEHmD^BOOKTHATSPARKEOm^^S^ThS.T^
;
Sterling, Philip and Logan Rayford. FOUR TOOK FREEDOM: THE LIVES OF HARRIET TUBMAN. FREDERICK DOUGLASS. ROBERT SMALLS. AND BLANCHE K. BRUCE. Garden City. NY:
Doubleday, 1967. Biographical portraits of four famous African Americans who escaped the slav
ery into which they had been born to further the fight for freedom and equality.
Sterne, Emma Gelders. THE LONG BLACK SCHOONER: THE VOYAGE OF THE AMISTAD.
Chicago: Follett Pub Co.. 1968. A fictional account of the 1839 revolt of Africans aboard the slave
ship Amistad and the subsequent Amistad Case argued by John Quincy Adams before the United
States Supreme Court.
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Captives Cave which is linked to his ancestors.
Forman, James. SONG OF JUBILEE. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1971. This expose of slavery
reveals the ambivalent feelings among slaves in one household, particularly after freedom is granted.
grew up
win her fteedon, and fish, for her rights«*•
rson.
MLROATNewYoTETDu'uon 197^L^^STffLATTHEUNDERGROUND
escaped slave. help his peonkZolJ,hist*w, h
.WaB“ StiU *>" **"
Underground Railroad.
8
lh PhlladelPh,a s Anti-slavery Society and the
Fox. Paula. THE SLAVE DANCER New York: Dell. 1973. A stark view of slavery as seen through
the eyes of a young white boy who is shanghaied on a slaver and forced to make music for its
human cargo.
Freedman, Florence B. TWO TICKETS TO FREEDOM: THE TRUE STORY OF ELLEN AND
WILLIAM CRAFT, FUGITIVE SLAVES. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1971. Contemporary
sources such as newspaper articles, journals, and the published story of William Craft help reconstruct this interesting account.
Lester, Julius.
1972. Shr s.one^l'SS^avel0^ FR°M BUCK H“ New York: Dial Press.
Grant, Matthew G. HARRIET TUBMAN, BLACK LIBERATOR. Mankato. MN: Creative
Education. 1974 A biography of the famous conductor on the Underground Railroad who worked
to free her people before, during, and after the Civil War.
1975.
i
Gray. Genevieve. THE YELLOW BONE RING. New York: Lothrop, 1971. The pride and responsi
bility of freedom are explored in this dramatic story of a young ex-slave in the First South Carolina
Volunteers, the first Black Union Army regiment.
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Jacob, Helen Pierce. THE DIARY OF STRAWBRIDGE PLACE. New York: Atheneum, 1978. A
family of Quakers operating a station on the Underground Railroad spirits slaves from Ashtabula
Ohio across Lake Erie to freedom.
'
Harrison. Lowell Hayes. THE ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT IN KENTUCKY. Lexington. KY:
University Press of Kentucky, 1978.
254
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May, Charles Paul. STRANGER rN THE STORM New Yorkf bliTa:h
rUnaW3y S,3Ve heIPs hvo li«le girls survive in
blizzard, and they in turn help him hide from his pursuers
GARRETT. Moylan, PA: Whimsie Press, 1977,
’
Henderson, Nancy. WALK TOGETHER: FIVE PLAYS ON HUMAN RIGHTS. New York: Messner.
1972. One of the plays is the story of slaves risking their lives for freedom in the Underground Railroad.
Johnson. Ann Donegan. THE VALUE OF HELPING: THE STORY OF HARRIET TUBMAN. La
Jolla, CA: Value Communications, 1979. Describes the helpful work of Harriet Tubman in aiding
slaves to flee the South in assisting the Union army during the Civil War and in establishing homes
for the old and needy after the war.
Warn
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Greenfield, Eloise. HONEY, I LOVE. New York: Thomas T. Crowell Co. 1978. A picture book col
lection of poems about various subjects including a poem about Harriet Tubman and her escape
from slavery.
Heidish, Marcy. A WOMAN CALLED MOSES. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1976.
Harriet Tubman looks back over her life and tells her own story. The reader sees her as a sevenyear-old enslaved African her heartaches and griefs on through her escape by way of the
Underground Railroad.
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man. He did manual labor at
Grand River Institute, in Ohio,
in exchange for the opportunity
to study Greek and Latin. He
settled in Chicago in 1837. He
taught hvo years then went to
work in a law office so that he
could study law. He was a prac
ticing lawyer until he was elect
ed Justice of the Peace. He was
one of the founders of the antislavery society in 1859 and
helped establish the Western
Citizen which was edited by
Zebina Eastman.
52^ and throuSh a Redman, learns the healing power of
S'
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Traces the history of Blacks in America from their arrival as
c^lHghts SeVentCenth Century t° the present-day struggle for
Meltzer. Milton.
Bradb., 19?. ISSSSSho
worked actively in the Underground Railroad.
Barbara Claassen. RUNAWAY TO FREEDOM- A
STORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY. New York:
Harper & Row, 1978. Two young slave girls escape from a plan-
255
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THE HOUSE OF DIES DREAR. New York: Collier Books, 1984. A black family moves into an
enormous house once used as a hiding place for runaway slaves Mysterious sounds and events as
well as the discovery of secret passageways make the family believe they are in grave danger.
S^RY^
THE MYSTERY OF DREAR HOUSE: THE CONCLUSION OF THE DIES DREAR CHRONICLE
New York: Greenwillow Books, 1987. A black family living in the house of long-dead abolitionist
Dies Drear must decide what to do with his stupendous treasure hidden for one hundred years in a
cavern near their home.
WITH CON-
Facts on File Publications. 1988. Describes the liLf theVhnl^
American slaves resulted in the raid on Harpers Ferry.
/ u MAPS' New York:
Wh°Se StrUg8,e t0 free
KENTUm^
Hurmence, Belinda. A GIRL CALLED BOY. New York: Clarion, 1982. Mysteriously transported in
tune to the 1850 s, a young girl learns to respect the courage of her slave forebears.
Johnson, Georgia. A TOWPATH TO FREEDOM. East Lansing: G. A Johnson Publishing, 1989.
om
Klingel, Cynthia Fitterer. HARRIET TUBMAN. Mankato, MN: Creative Education, 1987. A biog
raphy of the runaway slave who risked her life to help other slaves escape to freed om.
WBXfe
Lame. Reginald. MAKIN’ FREE: AFRICAN-AMERICANS IN THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY.
Detroit: B. Ethridge Books, 1981. A book which traces the early arrival and exploits of a number
of lesser known African Americans who explored the Northwest regions of the United States and
Upper Canada.
mm
II
Lester, Julius. THIS STRANGE NEW FEELING. New York: Scholastic, Inc. 1985. The impact of
slavery on the human spirit is presented in three love stories based on true events.
;1
McKissack. Patricia and Frederick McKissack. FREDERICK DOUGLASS: THE BLACK LION.
Chicago: Children’s Press, 1987. Frederick Douglass becomes a spokesperson in the antislavery
movement.
7
Meyer. Linda D. HARRIET TUBMAN: THEY CALLED ME MOSES. Seattle: Parenting Press, 1988.
Biography of the Black woman who lived as a slave, free woman, conductor of the Underground
Railroad and benefactor to the needy.
Rev. Richard DeBaptiste is associ
ated with Olivet Baptist Church in
Chicago. He and many members
of his church worked with members of Quinn Chapel A.M.E.
Church in antislavery activities.
He also took the personal risk of
loaning his freedom papers to
Underground Railroad passen
gers. After his years as pastor of
Miller, Douglas T. FREDERICK DOUGLASS AND THE FIGHT FOR FREEDOM. New York: Facts
on File, 1988. Traces the life of the black abolitionist, from his early years in slavery to his later
success as a persuasive editor orator and writer.
Phelan, Helen C. AND WHY NOT EVERY MAN? AN ACCOUNT OF SLAVERY, THE UNDER
GROUND RAILROAD, AND THE ROAD TO FREEDOM IN NEW YORK'S SOUTHERN TIER.
Interlake. NY: Heart of the Lakes Pub, 1987.
Polcovar, Jane. HARRIET TUBMAN. Danbury. CT: Childrens Press Choice, 1988.
■
Sabin. Francene. HARRIET TUBMAN. Mahwah.NJ: Troll Associates, 1985. A biography of the
Stein,
RAILROAD^' THErSJORYOF THE UNDERGROUND
RAILROAD. Chicago: Childrens Press, 1981. Discusses the
network of groups and individuals throughout Ohio and the
New England states who aided slaves escaping from their
captivity during the nineteenth century.
Turner Ann Warren. NETTIE'S TRIP SOUTH. New YorkJheu^Iv rr87' f
year'°'dn°rthern8irlcounters
the ugly realities of slavery when she visits Richmond,
Virginia, and sees a slave auction.
Books) Presents biographical sketches of fourteen notable
ParkTan^Sat^erp^'11^1^ ^art*n Luther King, Jr., Rosa
IS?*™. Satchel PaiSe* accompanied by brief skits in
hich readers can act out imagined scenes from their lives.
Walker, Juliet. E K FREE FRANK: A BLACK PIONEER ON
Lexington:
leadership P to Second'BaptTsf
TOEWRONruTv^6' DANIEL WEBSTER JACKSON AND
Church in Elgin. Courtesy of the
Vivian G. Harsh Collection.
Chicago Public Library
WRONGWAY RAILWAY. San Diego: Oak Tree
Publicatmns.1982- A teenage boy decides to leave his foster
"orn^ m Missouri rather than become involved in Judge
Hatcher s scheme to break up the Underground Railroad
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over 300 slave
David and Sarah West and their five children loaded their household
goods into a wagon and left Erie County, New York, in the faU of1843.
After 23 days of travel, resting on Sundays, they arrived in Sycamore.
Their house became the stopping place for visiting Congregational
ministers and it was an Underground Railroad station. In 1840 David
West voted (only Caucasian men had the franchise) for the Liberty
Party’s presidential candidate, James G. Bimey.
f
s escape through the Underground Railroad.
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that is operating in the territory.
!
Wells, Marian. THE SILVER HIGHWAY. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers, 1989.
1990
Adler, David A. A PICTURE BOOK OF HARRIET TUBMAN. New York: Holiday House, 1994.
Biography of the Black woman who escaped from slavery to become famous as a conductor on the
Underground Railroad.
!
Adler, David A. A PICTURE BOOK OF SOJOURNER TRUTH. New York: Holiday House. 1994.
An introduction to the life of the woman born into slavery who became a well-known abolitionist
and crusader for the rights of African Americans.
H^rBx9TocMNEGurD E TO THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York:
Braithwaite, Di ana.
Martha and Elvira.-
A ONE ACT PLAY. Toronto: SisterVisio
n. 1993.
Brandt, Nat. THE TOWN
that started the civil WAR.
Press, 1990.
Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University
Allen. Danice. ARMS OF A STRANGER. New York: Avon Books, 1995.
|
Armstrong. Jennifer. STEAL AWAY. New York: Orchard Books, 1992. In 1855 two thirteen yearold girls one white and one black, run away from a southern farm and make the difficult journey
north to freedom, living to recount their story forty-one years later to two young girls.
:
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Beatty, Patricia. JAYHAWKER. New York: Beech Tree, 1995. In the early years of the Civil War.
teenage Kansas farm boy Lije Tulley becomes a Jayhawker, an abolitionist raider freeing slaves
from the neighboring state of Missouri, and then goes undercover there as a spy.
AScX"™L™Ti, ** <**»*■*,, 1992 A „• „
™E ™°ERGROUND RA,LROAD. Hudson. OH: The
Unknown Author. WHO COMES WITH CANNONS? New York: Morrow Junior Books. 1992. In
1861 twelve-year-old Truth, a Quaker girl from Indiana, is staying with relatives who run a North
CvU W St3tl0n °f thC Under8round Railroad when her world is changed by the beginning of the
Narrative of
Becvar. Patsy. A PLACE CALLED MOTHER HUBBARD CUPBOARD. Chicago: Nystrom, 1991.
This book is used to introduce the concepts of slavery and the Underground Railroad.
Benjamin, Anne. YOUNG HARRIET TUBMAN: FREEDOM FIGHTER. Mahwah.NJ: Troll
Associates, 1992. A simple biography of the Black woman who was never caught as she helped
260
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Cosner, Shaaron. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: Franklin Watts. 1991. Describes
the Underground Railroad which helped slaves escape to freedom.
Craft. William. RUNNING A THOUSAND MILES FOR FREEDOM, OR THE ESCAPE OF
WILLIAM AND ELLEN CRAFT FROM SLAVERY. Salem. NH: Ayer Co.. 1991.
■
Hoobler, Dorothy. NEXT STOP. FREEDOM: THE STORY OF A SLAVE GIRL. Englewood Cliffs
help'ofHarriefTu bman'199L Emily’" ^ ^ Wh°,0ngS t0 read' eSCaPes from slaverX
the
Crews. Donald. BIGMAMA’S. New York : GreenwiUow Books, 1991. Visiting Bigmama’s house in
the country, young Donald Crews finds his relatives full of news and the old place and its sur
roundings just the same as the year before.
Hopkinson. Deborah. SWEET CLARA AND THE FREEDOM QUILT. New York: Knopf. 1993 A
young slave stitches a quilt with a map pattern which guides her to freedom in the North.
Douglas. Marjory Stoneman. FREEDOM RIVER. Miami: Valiant Press, 1994. In the 1840s, as
Florida prepares to become a state, an Indian boy, black slave, and white settler become friends
and explore their differences and common bonds.
Johnson. La Verne C. KUMI AND CHANTI TELL THE STORY OF HARRIET TUBMAN. Chicago:
Empak Enterprises. 1992. Two African children following their mission of exploring AfricanAmerican history record the story of Harriet Tubman, who escaped from slavery and led over 300
of her people to freedom along the Underground Railroad.
Douglass. Frederick. ESCAPE FROM SLAVERY: THE BOYHOOD OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS IN
HIS OWN WORDS. Ed and illus. by Michael McCurdy New York: Knopf, 1994. A revised and
shortened edition of THE NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS. AN AMERI
CAN SLAVE. This version of Douglass’ autobiography presents the early life of the slave who
became an abolitionist, journalist, and statesman.
Kinard, Lee. HARRIET TUBMAN’S FAMOUS CHRISTMAS EVE RAID. Nashville: James C
Winston Publishers, 1995.
Lawrence. Jacob. THE GREAT MIGRATION: AN AMERICAN STORY. New York: HarperCollins.
1993. A series of paintings chronicles the journey of African Americans who, like the artist's fami
ly. left the rural South in the early twentieth century to find a better life in the industrial North.
Elisha, Dan. HARRIET TUBMAN AND THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. Brookfield, CT:
Millbrook Press, 1993. A biography of the African American woman who escaped from slavery,
led slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad, aided Northern troops during the Civil War.
and worked for women’s suffrage.
Levine. Ellen. IF YOU TRAVELED ON THE UNDER
GROUND RAILROAD. New York: Scholastic, 1993.
Describes the Underground Railroad which helped
slaves escape to freedom.
Forrester, Sandra. SOUND THE JUBILEE. New York: Lodestar Books, 1995. A slave and her fami
ly find refuge on Roanoke Island, North Carolina during the Civil War.
Gaines. Edith M. FREEDOM LIGHT. Cleveland: New Day Press, 1991. The story of the antislav
ery heroes of Ripley. Ohio, based on eyewitness accounts of two of their leaders John Rankin and
John Parker.
1
Marcey, Sally. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD.
Wheaton, IL: T^ndale House Publishers. 1991. A plotyour-own story about the Underground Railroad Follow
the Ringers as they find a hidden tunnel under the old
church in town and discover it may have been used to
hide slaves The reader’s choices will determine which of
fifteen endings will happen.
Guccione. Leslie D. COME MORNING. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 1995. Twelve-year-old
Freedom the son of a freed slave living in Delaware in the early 1850s, takes his father’s work in the
Underground Railroad when his father disappears.
Hamilton, Virginia. MANY THOUSAND GONE: AFRICAN AMERICANS FROM SLAVERY TO
FREEDOM. New York: Knopf, 1993 Recounts the journey of Black slaves to freedom via the
Underground Railroad, an extended group of people who helped fugitive slaves in many ways.
----- THE PEOPLE COULD FLY: AMERICAN BLACK FOLKTALES. New York: Knopf, 1993.
Retold Afro-American folktales of animals, fantasy, the supernatural and desire for freedom born
of the sorrow of the slaves, but passed on in hope.
Haskins, James. GET ON BOARD: THE STORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York:
1
Scholastic 1993. Discusses the Underground RaUroad. the secret, loosely organized network of
people and places that helped many slaves escape north to freedom.
The portrait ofthe John Wagner family of
Aurora was painted by artist Sheldon
Peck. It was unusual in that Peck usually
painted portraits ofindividuals. His mak
ing an exception to this practice may have
had something to do with the fact that the
Wagners operated an Underground
Railroad station in Aurora and Peck oper
ated one in Lombard. Courtesy of the
Aurora Historical Society
McCay, Willie. YOUNG INDIANA JONES AND THE
PLANTATION TREASURE. NY: Random House, 1990.
McClard, Megan. HARRIET TUBMAN: SLAVERY AND
THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1990. A biography of the
courageous woman who rose from slave beginnings to
become a heroic figure in the Underground Railroad.
McKissack, Patricia C. CHRISTMAS IN THE BIG
262
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The Underground Railroad
HOUSE, CHRISTMAS IN THE QUARTERS. New York: Scholastic, 1994. Describes the customs,
recipes, poems, and songs used to celebrate Christmas in the big plantation houses and in the slave
quarters just before the Civil War.
SOJOURNER TRUTH: AIN’TIA WOMAN? New York: Scholastic, 1992. A biography of the for
mer slave who became well-known as a abolitionist and advocate of women’s rights.
in Illinois
Cassie retraces the steps escaping slaves took on
the Underground Railroad in order lo reunite
with her younger brother.
beginning a new free life when he
small island off the coast of Haiti.
McMullan, Kate. THE STORY OF HARRIET TUBMAN: CONDUCTOR OF THE UNDERGROUND
RAILROAD. New York: Dell, 1991.
P
f 8
fourteen-year-old Moses thinks he is
P of other former slaves headed for a
^
^ *' SCh00‘ by repeatedly «Uing
Monfredo, Miriam Grace. NORTH STAR CONSPIRACY. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.
Monjo, F. N. THE DRINKING GOURD: A STORY OF TIDE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New
York: HarperCollins, 1993. When he is sent home alone for misbehaving in church, Tommy dis
covers that his house is a station on the Underground Railroad.
him into slavery, after which he always escaped.
family in Kansas in thTute^SOs o^erltK fstafton^n theTd
paraUeI s,ori«. a Q“aker
Pfeifer, Kathryn Browne. HENRY 0. FLIPPER. New York: Twenty-First Century Books, 1993.
Examines the life of the first African American graduate of West Point, including his dishonorable
discharge from the Army which was reversed nearly 100 years later.
S.adeihofen,Marcie Miller. ERIE FREEDOM SIDE. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press. 1990,
Phillips, Raelene. FREEDOM’S TREMENDOUS COST. Elkhart, IN: Bethel Pub Co. 1993. The
Stivers family tradition continues Hannah and her children struggle for freedom, this time for
southern slaves escaping to the North with the help of abolitionists and the Underground Railroad.
collection ofwritingslfy^hluthlfrs a^WE b'duBo^ T^'m' ^ Millbrook Press. «95. A
Polacco, Patricia. PINK AND SAY. New York: Philomel Books. 1994. Say Curtis describes his meet
ing with Pinkus Alee, a black soldier, during the Civil War. and their capture by Southern troops.
Wright, and Ralph Ellison, exploring the a,nnecfto„, of IT T™’ *“* Dove’ Richard
rC VCl* water’and sonS that link past
and present African American cultures.
Stolz, Mary. CEZANNE PINTO: A MEMOIR.
Pmto recalls his youth as a slave on Virginiaplamaton and'his^^0 new^etfe NoTth™'
Porter, Connie Rose. MEET ADDY: AN AMERI
CAN GIRL. Middleton, WI: Pleasant Co., 1993.
Nine-year-old Addy Walker escapes from a cruel life
of slavery to freedom during the Civil War.
rorYo™hGreoaECHNew“rt °L™yN ^'fbm mf 199T^eRICAN “T™** AND ART
Afti'an A-ka" experience as’ seen Ihro^^tTd
ADDY LEARNS A LESSON: A SCHOOL STORY.
Middleton, WI: Pleasant Co., 1993. After escaping
from a plantation in North Carolina, Addy and her
mother arrive in Philadelphia where Addy goes to
school and learns a lesson in true friendship.
The author confers with Fulton County his
torian Curtis Strode who wrote a newspaper
series based on the UGRR activiies of his
great grandfather, Francis Overton and fel
low abolitionists. The Overton Farm was on
the route between Quincy and Galesburg.
Rappaport, Doreen. ESCAPE FROM SLAVERY:
FIVE JOURNEYS TO FREEDOM. New York:
HarperCollins, 1991. Five accounts of slaves who
managed to escape to freedom during the period
preceding the Civil War.
Ringgold. Faith. AUNT HARRIET’S UNDER
GROUND RAILROAD IN TIDE SKY. New York: Crown, 1992. With Harriet Tbbman as her guide,
*
bUck or
Targ-Ilriik Marlene. ALLEN JAY AND THE UNDERGROUND RAILRO
Caroirhoda Books, J995. Recounts how Allen Jay, a
°'AD. Minneapolis:
1840s, helped a fleeing slave i
Railroad.
Taylor, Marian W. HARRIET TUBMAN.
Danbury. CT: Grolier, 1990.
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Washington, Booker T. UP FROM SLAVERY
Ed. by William L. Andrews. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
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Weinberg, Larry. GHOST HOTEL. Mahwah, NJ: Troll, 1994. Mysteriously drawn to an Indiana
museum, a twelve-year-old paralyzed girl encounters ghosts who return her to a former life, where
she attempts to save the son of a freed slave traveling by Underground Railroad in Kentucky.
Winter, Jeanette. FOLLOW THE DRINKING GOURD. New York: Dragonfly Books. 1992. By fol
lowing the directions in a song, “The Drinking Gourd," taught to them by an old sailor named Peg
Leg Joe, runaway slaves journey north along the Underground Railroad to freedom in Canada.
Wright, Courtni Crump. JOURNEY TO FREEDOM: A STORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAIL
ROAD. New York: Holiday House, 1994. Joshua and his family, runaway slaves from a tobacco
plantation in Kentucky, follow the Underground Railroad to freedom.
!
“Forever Free" by Edmonia Lewis
Courtesy of the Moorland-Spingam Research Center,
Howard University
"During all my slave life I never lost sight of freedom. It
was always on my heart; it came to me like a solemn
thought, and often circumstances much stimulated the
desire to be free and raised great expectation of it"—
Ambrose Headen, born 1822, enslaved in North
Carolina and Alabama.
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The Underground Railroad in Illinois
Get on board for more adventure
Reverend Abraham Hall
Rev. Hall was not only a leader in the African Methodist Episcopal
Church. He was the grandfather of Lloyd Augustus Hall, the holder
of many patents. Lloyd Hall specialized in perfecting methods of
preserving foods. His work was essential to te development of dehy
drated Army rations during World War II. Courtesy of Vivian G.
Harsh Collection, Chicago Public Library
Allan Pinkerton solved his first crime quite by chance. While he was a
cooper, or barrel maker, in Dundee, he went to gather reeds with which to
bind the barrels. He rowed his boat to an island in the Fox River where the
reeds grew. There, he discovered the hiding place of counterfeiters whom
the local sheriff had been unable to locate. Pinkerton instantly gained a
reputation as a detective.
Braille Books for Children, 1983. The biography of a slave
whose flight to freedom was the first step in her becoming a
“conductor” on the Underground Railroad.
tation in Mississippi and wind a hazardous route toward freedom in Canada via the Underground
Railroad.
Bledsoe. Lucy Jane. HARRIET TUBMAN. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Quercus. 1989.
Talmudge, Marian and Iris Gilmore. BARNEY FORD: BLACK BARON. New York: Dodd. 1973.
An indomitable man who escaped from slavery and became a wealthy leader in the political,
social, and business life of Denver, Colorado.
Blockson, Charles L. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD. New York: Berkley, 1989. A comprehen
sive study of the Underground Railroad arranged by the geographic regions in which it operated
Based on many primary sources.
T\imer, Glennette. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD IN DuPAGE. Wheaton, IL: Newman, 1978.
Warner, Lucille Schulberg. FROM SLAVE TO ABOLITIONIST: THE LIFE OF WILLIAM WELLS
BROWN. New York: Dial Press, 1976. The memoirs of a fugitive slave a man important in the
abolitionist movements in England and America. (Adaptation)
Bradley. David. THE CHANEYSVILLE INCIDENT. New York: Harper & Row. 1981.
Carlson, J. HARRIET TUBMAN: CALL TO FREEDOM. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1989.
Traces Harriet Tubman’s life, experience, and efforts to aid slaves in escaping to the North, as well
as her assistance to the Union cause during the Civil War.
White. Anne Terry. NORTH TO LIBERTY: THE STORY OF THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD.
Champaign, IL: Garrard Pub Co., 1972. Describes the operation, stations, and famous conductors
on the Underground Railroad, a network that helped many slaves escape from bondage.
Collier, Christopher and James Lincoln Collier. WAR COMES TO WILLY FREEMAN. New York:
Delacorte Press, 1983. Historical novel that portrays the plight of Black people during the
American Revolution.
Williams, Jeanne. FREEDOM TRAIL. New York: Putnam, 1973. Jared continues his stand against
slavery in pre-Civil War Kansas even though his father is killed by proslavers.
Collier, James Lincoln. WHO IS CARRIE? New York: Dell Pub Co., 1987. A young Black girl living
in New York City in the late eighteenth century observes the historic events taking place around
her and at the same time solves the mystery of her own identity.
Winslow. Eugene. AFRO-AMERICANS 76: BLACK AMERICANS IN THE FOUNDING OF OUR
NATION. Chicago: Afro-Am Pub Co., 1975. Provides biographical sketches of Afro-Americans
who contributed to the exploration, Revolution, and growth of the United States.
Ferris, Jeri. GO FREE OR DIE: A STORY ABOUT HARRIET TUBMAN. Minneapolis: First Avenue
Editions, 1988. A biography of the Black woman whose cruel experiences as a slave in the South
led her to seek freedom in the North for herself and for others through the Underground Railroad.
1980
Anderson, Joan A. WILLIAMSBURG HOUSEHOLD. New York: Clarion Books, 1988. Focuses on
events in the household of d white family and its black slaves in Colonial Williamsburg in the eigh
teenth century.
Haley, Alex. A DIFFERENT KIND OF CHRISTMAS. New York: Doubleday, 1988. This adven
ture, set in 1855, tells the story of a young white Southerner who helps in the Underground
Railroad and in an enslaved African’s Christmas Eve escape attempt.
Avi. SOMETHING UPSTAIRS. New York: Avon Books, 1988. When he moves from Los Angeles
to Providence, Rhode Island, Kenny discovers that his new home is haunted by the spirit of a black
slave boy who asks Kenny to return with him to the early nineteenth century and prevent his mur
der by slave traders.
Hamilton, Virginia. ANTHONY BURNS: THE DEFEAT AND TRIUMPH OF A FUGITIVE SLAVE.
New York: A A Knopf, 1988. A biography of the slave who escaped to Boston in 1854, was arrest
ed at the instigation of his owner, and whose trial caused a furor between abolitionists and those
determined to enforce the Fugitive Slave Acts.
Bains. Rae. HARRIET TUBMAN: THE ROAD TO FREEDOM (Braille) Livonia, MI: Seedlings
:
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Lyman Wilmot House
Description
An account of the resource
This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Deerfield Public Library
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Deerfield Public Library
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Deerfield Public Library
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2002
Language
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English
Identifier
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DPL.0013
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Underground Railroad in Illinois
Description
An account of the resource
Photocopy of pages from the book The Underground Railroad in Illinois by Glennette Tilley Turner related to other resources that talked about the Underground Railroad.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Turner, Glennette Tilley
Publisher
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Newman Educational Publishing
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Published 2001
Accessed 02/27/2002
Language
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English
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
DPL.0013.007
A Different Kind of Christmas
A Girl Called Boy
A Job for Jeremiah
A Lantern in the Window
A Picture Book of Harriet Tubman
A Picture Book of Sojourner Truth
A Place Called Mother Hubbard Cupboard
A Quaker Pioneer: Laura Haviland Superintendent of the Underground Railroad
A School for Pompey Walker
A Station Master on the Underground Railroad: The Life and Letters of Thomas Garrett
A Towpath to Freedom
A Woman Called Moses
A Woman's Life Work: Including Thirty Years' Service on the Underground Railroad and in the War
A Woman's Life Work: Labors and Experiences of Laura S. Haviland
A.A. Knopf
Abolitionism
Abolitionist Newspapers
Abraham Hall
Abraham Lincoln
Addy Learns a Lesson: A School Story
Addy Walker
Africa
African American Images Bookstore
African American Newspapers
African American Voices
African Americans
African Methodist Episcopal Church
Afro-American Publishing Company
Afro-Americans '76: Black Americans in the Founding of Our Nation
Agnes Miller
Aileen Lucia Fisher
Alabama
Alex Haley
Alice Childress
Allan Pinkerton
Allen Jay
Allen Jay and the Underground Railroad
Ambrose Headen
American Antiquarian Society
American Civil War
American Revolutionary War
Amistad
Amistad Case
Amos Fortune
Amos Fortune Free Man
and Blanche K. Bruce
And Forever Free
And Why Not Every Man? An Account of Slavery the Underground Railroad and the Road to Freedom in New York's Southern Tier
Ann Donegan Johnson
Ann McGovern
Ann Warren Turner
Anna Elizabeth Lewis Hudlun
Anna Hudlun
Anna Louis Curtis
Anne Benjamin
Anne Lane Petry
Anne Terry White
Anthony Burns
Anthony Burns: The Defeat and Triumph of a Fugitive Slave
Arms of a Stranger
Arna Bontemps
Arno Press
Arthur Huff Fauset
Ashtabula Ohio
Atheneum
Atheneum Books for Young Readers
Aunt Harriet's Underground Railroad in Tide Sky
Aurora Historical Society
Aurora Illinois
Austin Texas
Avi
Avon Books
Ayer Company
B. Ethridge Books
Baltimore Maryland
Barbara Claasen Smucker
Barbara Rirchie
Barney Ford
Barney Ford: Black Baron
Battle Lanterns
Beatrice Steinman
Beech Tree
Belinda Hurmence
Berea Kentucky
Berkley
Bernard Katz
Bethany House Publishers
Bethel Publishing Company
Bibliography
Bigmama's
Black Codes
Black Coutours
Black Woman: A Fictionalized Biography of Lucy Terry Prince
Blanche K. Bruce
Bobbs
Bobbs-Merrill
Booker T. Washington
Born in Bondage
Boston Massachusetts
Bradbury
Brady
Brady Minton
Bree Burns
Brookfield Connecticut
Bruce Pub Company
Burrows Brothers
By Secret Railway
Calvin DeWolf
Canada
Canalboat to Freedom
Captain of the Planter: The Story of Robert Smalls
Carolrhoda Books
Cezanne Pinto
Cezanne Pinto: A Memoir
Champaign Illinois
Charles L. Blockson
Charles Ludwig
Charles Paul May
Charles Sullivan
Chelsea House Publishers
Chelsea Juniors
Chicago Board of Trade
Chicago Board of Trade Hall of Celebrities
Chicago Illinois
Chicago Public Library
Chicago Public Library Vivian G. Harsh Collection
Chicago Public Library Viviian G. Harsh Collection
Chicago Tribune
Chicago Tribune Sunday Magazine
Chickamauga and the Underground Railroad: A Tale of Two Grandfathers
Children of Promise: African American Literature and Art for Young People
Children's Press
Childrens Press Choice
Christmas in the Big House Christmas in the Quarters
Christopher Collier
Cincinnati Ohio
Citadel
Clarion
Clarion Books
Classroom for the Future
Cleveland Ohio
Cobblehill Books
College Hill Historical Society
Collier Books
Columbus Ohio
Come Morning
Confederate States of America
Connecticut
Connie Rose Porter
Cooper
Corrie and the Yankee
Courtni Crump Wright
Coward McCann and Geoghegan
Creative Education
Criterion Books
Crowell
Crown
Curtis Strode
Cynthia Fitterer Klingel
Dan Elisha
Danbury Connecticut
Danice Allen
Daniel Webster Jackson and the Wrongway Railway
David A. Adler
David Bradley
David Morgan
David West
Deborah Hopkinson
Deerfield Illinois
Deerfield Public Library
Delaware
Dell
Dell Publishing Company
Denver Colorado
DePaul University
DePaul Unizersity English Department
Detroit Michigan
Dial Press
Diana Braithwaite
Dies Drear
Dodd
Donald Crews
Donyell Gray
Doreen Rappaport
Dorothy Hoobler
Dorothy Sterling
Doubleday
Douglas T. Miller
Downers Grove Illinois
Dragonfly Books
Dundee Illinois
DuPage County Illinois
E.P. Dutton
East Lansing Michigan
Eber M. Pettit
Edith M. Gaines
Edmonia Lewis
Eleanor Weakley Nolen
Elgin Illinois
Elgin Second Baptist Church
Elizabeth F. Chittenden
Elizabeth Yates
Elkhart Indiana
Ellen Craft
Ellen Levine
Eloise Greenfield
Emancipation Proclamation
Emma Gelders Sterne
Empak Enterprises
England
Englewood Cliffs New Jersey
Enid La Monte Meadowcroft
Erie County New York
Erie Freedom Side
Escape
Escape from Slavery: Five Journeys to Freedom
Escape from Slavery: The Boyhood of Frederick Douglass in His Own Words
Escape to Freedom
Escape to Freedom: A Play About Young Frederick Douglass
Eugene Winslow
Exposition Press
F. Watts
F.N. Monjo
Facts on File
Faith Ringgold
Farrar Straus and Giroux
Fawcett Columbine
Fire Angel
First Avenue Editions
First Baptist Congregational Church
Flight to Freedom: The Story of the Underground Railroad
Florence B. Freedman
Florence Hayes
Follett Publishing Company
Follow the Drinking Gourd
Forever Free
Forever Free: The Story of the Emancipation Proclamation
Fort Sumter
Four Took Freedom: The Lives of Harriet Tubman
Four Winds Press
Fox River
Francene Sabin
Frances Cavanah
Frances Williams Browin
Franics Overton
Frank Hayward Severance
Frank McQuilkin
Franklin Watts
Frederick Douglass
Frederick Douglass and the Fight for Freedom
Frederick Douglass: Slave Fighters Freeman
Frederick Douglass: The Black Lion
Frederick McKissack
Fredonia New York
Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier
Freedom Crossing
Freedom Light
Freedom River
Freedom Trail
Freedom Train: The Story of Harriet Tubman
Freedom's Tremendous Cost
From Dixie to Canada: Romance and Reality of the Underground Railroad
From Slave to Abolitionist: The Life of William Wells Brown
Fugitive Slave Acts
Fugitive Slaves
Fulton County Illinois
Funk and Wagnalls
G. Allen Foster
G.A. Johnson Publishing
Galesburg Illinois
Garden City New York
Garrard Publishing Company
Gary Smith
Gateway Press
Genevieve Gray
Georgia
Georgia Johnson
Get on Board: The Story of the Underground Railroad
Ghost Hotel
Glen Ellyn Illinois
Glennette Tilley Turner
Glennette Turner
Go Free or Die: A Story About Harriet Tubman
Grand Rapids Michigan
Grand River Institute
Great Chicago Fire
Greek
Greenwillow Books
Grollier
H.U. Johnson
Haiti
Hannah Courageous
Hannah Stivers
Harcourt Brace and Company
Harcourt Brace Children's Books
Harper
Harper and Row
Harper's Ferry
HarperCollins
Harriet and the Promised Land
Harriet Beecher Stowe
Harriet Tubman
Harriet Tubman and Black History Month
Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad
Harriet Tubman Black Liberator
Harriet Tubman: Antislavery Activist
Harriet Tubman: Call to Freedom
Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad
Harriet Tubman: Guide to Freedom
Harriet Tubman: Slavery and the Underground Railroad
Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People
Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom
Harriet Tubman: They Called Me Moses
Harriet Tubman's Famous Christmas Eve Raid
Harriette Robinet
Harry N. Abrams
Harvard University Press
Hayden Book Company
Heart of the Lakes Publishing
Helen C. Phelan
Helen Pierce Jacob
Henrietta Buckmaster
Henry O. Flipper
Hildegarde Hoyt Swift
Hildreth Tyler Wristen
Hinsdale Illinois
Hippocrene Books
Hippocrene Guide to the Underground Railroad
History of the Underground Railroad as It Was Conducted by the Anti-Slavery League
History of the Underground Railroad in Chester and the Neighboring Counties of Pennsylvania
Holiday House
Homer Uri Johnson
Honey I Love
Horatio T. Strother
Houghton
Houghton Mifflin Company
Howard University
Howard University Moorland-Spingarn Research Center
Hudson Ohio
Hudson Ohio and the Underground Railroad
Huntington Indiana
If You Please President Lincoln
If You Traveled on the Underground Railroad
Illinois
Illinois Libraries
Illinois State Library
Indiana
Indianapolis Indiana
Interlake New York
Iris Gilmore
Isabella McMeekin
Israel Blodgett
J. Carlson
J. Messner
J.W. Cockrum
Jacob Lawrence
James A. McGowan
James C. Birney
James C. Winston Publishers
James F. Caccamo
James Forman
James Haskins
James Lincoln Collier
James M. McPherson
James O. Bond
James William
James WIlliams
Jane Kristof
Jane Polcovar
Jayhawker
Jean Fritz
Jeanne Williams
Jeannette Winter
Jennifer Armstrong
Jeri Ferris
Jermain Wesley Loguen
Joan A. Anderson
Joanna Halpert Kraus
Joanne WIlliamson
Joe Coe
John Anthony Scott
John Brown
John Brown's of Harper's Ferry
John Jones
John Parker
John Quincy Adams
John Rankin
John Scobell
John Wagner
Jonathan Katz
Joseph Henry Hudlan Senior
Joseph Hudlun
Josiah Henson
Journey Cake
Journey to Freedom: A Story of the Underground Railroad
Judith Bentley
Juliet E.K. Walker
Julius Lester
Julius Warren
Justice of the Peace
Kansas
Kate Connell
Kate McMullan
Kathie Billingslea Smith
Kathleen Bethel
Kathryn Browne Pfeifer
Kentucky
Knopf
Kumi and Chanti Tell the Story of Harriet Tubman
L.C. Paine Freerer
La Jolla California
Lake Erie
Lancaster Pennsylvania
Lanham Maryland
Larry and the Freedom Man
Larry Gara
Larry Weinberg
Last Chance for Freedom
Latin
Laura Long
Laura S. Haviland
Laura Smith Haviland
LaVerne C. Johnson
Lee Kinard
Leslie D. Guccione
Let My People Go: The Story of the Underground Railroad and the Growth of the Abolition Movement
Letters
Levi Coffin
Levi Coffin and the Underground Railroad
Lewis Howard Latimer
Lexington Kentucky
Liberty Party
Life and Adventures of James William A Fugitive Slave with a Full Description of the Underground Railroad
Life and Times of Frederick Douglass
Lije Tulley
Lillie Patterson
Linda D. Meyer
Lippincott
Lippincott Grambo and Company
Livonia Michigan
Lloyd Augustus Hall
Lodestar Books
Logan Reyford
Lois Ruby
Lombard Illinois
London England
Long Journey Home: Stories from Black History
Long's College Book Company
Longman
Longmans
Looking for Orlando
Los Angeles California
Lothrop
Louise Riley
Lowell Hayes Harrison
Lucille Schulberg Warner
Lucy Jane Bledsoe
Lucy Terry Prince
Lurey Khan
Macmillan
Mahwah New Jersey
Make Free: The Story of the Underground Railroad
Makin' Free: African Americans in the Northwest Territory
Mankato Minnesota
Many Thousand Gone: African Americans From Slavery to Freedom
Marcia M. Mathews
Marcie Miller Stadelhofen
Marcy Heidish
Margaret Gogg Clark
Margaret Hagler
Marguerite DeAngeli
Marian Talmudge
Marian W. Taylor
Marian Wells
Marie Jenkins Schwartz
Marjorie Hill Allee
Marjory Stoneman Douglas
Marjory Stoneman Douglass
Marlene Targ-Brill
Martha and Elvira: A One Act Play
Martin Luther King Jr.
Marvin Benjamin Butler
Mary Collins Dunne
Mary Stolz
Matthew G. Grant
May McNeer
Mean to be Free: A Flight North on the Underground Railroad
Meet Addy: An American Girl
Megan McClard
Merritt Parmelee Allen
Messner
Miami Florida
Michael J. Rosen
Michael McCurdey
Michele Stepto
Middleton Wisconsin
Middletown Connecticut
Mildred Barger Herschler
Mildred E. Danforth
Millbrook Press
Milton Meltzer
Mimi Cooper Levy
Minneapolis Minnesota
Miriam Grace Monfredo
Mississippi
Missouri
Morrow Junior Books
Moylan Pennsylvania
Mr. Frank the Underground Mail Agent
My Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A College Hill Sourcebook of Black History
My Story of the Civil War and the Underground Railroad
Nancy Henderson
NASA Headquarters
Nashville Tennessee
Nat Brandt
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
National Geographic
National Park Service
National Parks and Conservation Association
National Parks and Conservation Association Magazine
Negro Universities Press
Nettie's Trip South
New Day Press
New Dreams for Old
New England
New Plays for Children
New Readers Press
New York City New York
New York Puffin Books
Newman
Newman Educational Publishing
Newspapers
Next Stop Freedom: The Story of a Slave Girl
North Carolina
North Star Conspiracy
North to Liberty: The Story of the Underground Railroad
Northwestern University
Nystrom
Oak Tree Publications
Oakland City Indiana
Office of the Journal
Official Records
Ohio
Old Tappan New Jersey
Old Trails on the Niagara Frontier
Olivet Baptist Church
One Day Levin ... He Be Free: William Still and the Underground Railroad
Orchard Books
Orwell Ohio
Ossie Davis
Overton Farm
Oxford University Press
Pamphlets
Pantheon
Pantheon Books
Parenting Press
Patricia Beatty
Patricia C. McKissack
Patricia McKissack
Patricia Polacco
Patsy Becvar
Paula Fox
Peg Leg Joe
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society
Philadelphia Pennsylvania
Philadelphia Vigilance Committees
Philip Sterling
Philo Carpenter
Philomel Books
Pink and Say
Pinkus Alee
Pleasant Company
Polly Carter
Pompey Walker
Profiles in Black and White: Stories of Men and Women Who Fought Against Slavery
Providence Rhode Island
Puffin Books
Putnam
Quacker
Quakers
Quercus
Quincy Illinois
Quinn Chapel AME Church
R and E Research Associates
R. Conrad Stein
Rae Rains
Raelene Phillips
Raintree Steck-Vaughn
Ralph Ellison
Random House
Raymond Bial
Rebecca Wright
Reginald Larrie
Reminiscences of Levi Coffin
Rhoda W. Backmeister
Richard D. Sears
Richard DeBaptiste
Richard T. Greener
Richard Wright
Richmond Virginia
Ripley Ohio
Rita Dove
Roanoke Island North Carolina
Robert Alan Scott
Robert Clemens Smedley
Robert Smalls
Robert Wayne Walker
Rosa Parks
Rowayton Connecticut
Runaway Slave: The Story of Harriet Tubman
Runaway to Freedom: A Story of the Underground Railroad
Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom or the Escape of William and Ellen Craft from Slavery
Running for Our Lives
Ruth Fosdick Jones
S. Epstein
S.B. Shaw Publishers
S.R. Scottron
Salem New Hampshire
Sally Carrighar
Sally Marcey
San Diego California
Sandra Forrester
Sarah Bradford
Sarah West
Saratoga California
Satchel Paige
Say Curtis
Scarsdale New York
Scholastic
Scholastic Book Services
Scholastic Incorporated
Schuman
Scribner
Seattle Washington
Secaucus New Jersey
Seedlings Braille Books for Children
Seminole Native American
Shaaron Cosner
Sheldon Peck
Shirley Graham
Sickler
Silver Burdett Press
Silver Press
Simon and Schuster
Sister Vision
Sketches in the History of The Underground Railroad
Skid
Slavery
Sojourner Truth
Sojourner Truth: Ain't I A Woman
Sojourner Truth: God's Faithful Pilgrim
Something Upstairs
Song of Jubilee
Songs of the Underground Railroad
Sound the Jubilee
South Carolina
Speeches
St. Martin's Press
Steal Away
Steal Away Home
Stories of the Underground Railroad
Stranger in the Pines
Stranger in the Storm
Susan's Secret
Susanna and Tristram
Sweet Clara and the Freedom Quilt
Syracuse University Press
T. Nelson
T.Y. Crowell Company
Take a Walk in Their Shoes
Tales from the Underground Railroad
Terry Bisson
The Antislavery Movement in Kentucky
The Black Man in the Land of Equality
The Chaneysville Incident
The Day of Small Things: Abolitionism in Midst Slavery Berea Kentucky
The Diary of Strawbridge Place
The Drinking Gourd: A Story of the Underground Railroad
The Eyes and Ears of the Civil War
The Freedom Star
The Friends of the Hudson Library Incorporated
The Glass Dove
The Great Migration: An American Story
The History Channel
The House of Dies Drear
The Island Workshop Press Co-Op
The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad
The Long Black Schooner; The Voyage of the Amistad
The Mysteries of Ohio's Underground Railroads
The Mystery of Drear House: The Conclusion of the Dies Drear Chronicle
The Negro's Civil War: How Negroes Felt and Acted During the War for the Union
The People Could Fly: American Black Folktales
The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War
The Rev. J.W. Loguen as a Slave and as a Freeman
The Secret of Captives' Cave
The Silver Highway
The Slave Dancer
The Society
The Story of Harriet Tubman: Conductor of the Underground Railroad
The Story of the Underground Railroad
The Town that Started the Civil War
The Truth About the Man Behind the Book That Sparked the War Between the States
The Underground Railroad
The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom
The Underground Railroad in Connecticut
The Underground Railroad in DuPage
The Underground Railroad in Illinois
The Underground Railroad in Massachusetts
The Underground Railroad: Connections to Freedom and Science
The United Brethren Publishing Establishment
The Value of Helping: The Story of Harriet Tubman
The Yellow Bone Ring
Thee Hannah
There Once Was a Slave: The Heroic Story of Frederick Douglass
Think Black: An Introduction to Black Political Power
This Railroad Disappears
This Strange New Feeling
Thomas Falls
Thomas J. Ladenburg
Thomas T. Crowell Company
To Be a Slave
Tom Person
Toni Morrison
Toronto Canada
Trail Through DuPage County
Train for Tiger Lily
Troll Associates
Trumpet Club
Twenty-First Century Books
Two Tickets to Freedom: The True Story of Ellen and William Craft Fugitive Slaves
Tyndale House Publishers
Underground Man
Underground Railroad
Union Army African American Regiments
Union Army First South Carolina Volunteers
Union Army Indiana Volunteers 44th Regiment
United States National Park Service
United States National Park Service Underground Railroad Special Resource Study
United States Supreme Court
University of Kentucky Press
University of North Carolina Press
University Press of America
University Press of Kentucky
Up from Slavery an Autobiography
Valiant Press
Value Communications
Vidi
Viking
Virginia
Virginia Hamilton
Vivian G. Harsh
Viviian G. Harsh
Vladivostok Russia
Voices in the Night
W. McKinstry and Son
W. Tweedie
W.E.B. DuBois
Walk Together: Five Plays on Human Rights
Wanted Dead or Alive: The True Story of Harriet Tubman
Warrenville Illinois
Wesleyan University Press
West Point
Western Citizen
Westminster
Wheaton Illinois
When the Rattlesnake Sounds: A Play
Whimsie Press
Who Comes with Cannons
Who is Carrie
Wilbur Henry Siebert
Wilbur Siebert
William Craft
William H. Mitchell
William L. Andrews
William Monroe Cockrum
William S. McFeely
William Still
William Wells Brown
William X. Breyfogle
Williamsburg Household
Williamsburg Virginia
Willie McCay
Worcester Massachusetts
World War II
Young Harriet Tubman: Freedom Fighter
Young Indiana Jones and the Plantation Treasure
Zebina Eastman