3 10 3233 https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/3653880b49314914c00713dce13798d6.pdf a4973ac3908e71691cb00bc84e719f0a PDF Text Text y in Canada °es, for one 3 the United 1 a Canaan. n> to escape many never >n had seen, claim upon >crypha, not id, the AntiBrown were :hared North Jse facets of 8. A Continental Abolitionism? The Underground Railroad plays a dual role in the story of the continental movement to abolish slavery. It was unquestionably the highly effective means by which a number—an exaggerated and indefinite number of fugitive slaves reached British North America. It was the cause of a legend that would make it possible for Canadians to reinforce their self-congrat­ ulatory attitudes toward their position on the Negro, and to strengthen those self-congratulatory assumptions into the twentieth century. The latter role was more demonstrable than the former. To say that the Underground Railroad was enlarged by legend is not to say that it did not exist. Clearly, there was a loose network of abolition­ ists, perhaps predominantly Quaker, who communicated with one another in order to make known various places of refuge where fugitive slaves might go during their journey from the slave states to the free border cities of the north and to the British provinces. Thousands of fugitive slaves were helped in this manner, being passed on from hand to hand, fed, clothed, and hidden, and on occasion given transport or money for the purchase of tickets. In some areas—especially southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio— the so-called Underground Railroad agents worked clandestinely, living amidst proslavery or anti-Negro neighbors. But in many other areas further to the north the Railroad was seldom underground, being well known to local newspapers and law officers alike—as in Syracuse, Detroit, and Toledo. That the Railroad did help many fugitive slaves reach Canada West in particular, yet that its importance was much exaggerated, is now well demonstrated.1 Both aspects of this legend are central to an under­ standing of the position of the Negro in the Canadas during the decade before, and the several decades after, the Civil War. Canadian legend today claims that at least sixty thousand fugitive slaves were resident in Canada West in 1860. Contemporary estimates ranged from fifteen to seventy-five thousand, with many whites accepting figures closer to the latter. If this were so, the black population of Canada West in the 1850s was around 4 percent of the total, since the 1861 census 1. See, in particular, Larry Gara: “Propaganda Uses of the Underground Railway,” Mid-America, n.s., 23 (1952), 155-71; and idem, “The Underground Railway: Legend or Reality?”, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 105 (1961), 33439. �234 A Continental Abolitionism? The Blacks in Canada for the province showed 1,396,000. That the Negro population did increase precipitously in the southwestern part of the province also is clear, a condition that helps to explain the rapidly rising anti-Negro sentiment in that portion of Canada West as well as the tendency to overestimate Negro numbers. If so many fugitive slaves did find refuge in the single province, two other conclusions follow: the great majority returned to the United States at the end of the Civil War, since the Negro population in 1871 was undeniably but a fraction of sixty thousand; and the Canadians could rightly take credit for harboring—and for at least a decade and a half giving aid to—a quite substantial body of refugees from the political and social conflicts of the Republic. Yet, both the estimates of the Negro population, and the conclusions relating to fugitive slaves that flow from these estimates, must be tempered by a number of observations: 1. While contemporary accounts often suggested that sixty thousand or more fugitive slaves were present in Canada West, in fact at least, both Canada West and Canada East were meant—as one may see when the estimates are read in context; and on occasion all of British North America was indicated. Thus, the sixty thousand should be read against a total population of over three million. In fact, the black segment of the population probably gained only a percentage point in the 1850s, since there was massive white immigration during the decade. 2. While the estimates implied that they referred to fugitive slaves only, again when read in context nearly all show that they applied to the total black population. The figures often were given out in ignorance of the presence of many free Negroes from the northern states and of free Canadian Negroes who traced themselves back to the American Revolution. One may ask, What is said of the British North American attitude toward Negroes when all were assumed to be fugitives? 2 3. In any event, the estimates utterly ignore the official censuses of the governments of the Canadas. The census for Canada West in 1851 showed a total of 4,669 Negroes, while official estimates suggested 8,000; the census for 1861 showed 11,223; and other official figures raised the total to 13,566. The 1861 census, in particular, was thought at the time and has proven since to be quite inaccurate.3 2. Siebert, Underground Railroad, p. 219; Booker T. Washington, The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery (New York, 1909), 2, 240. Contemporary authority for the estimate of a total of sixty thousand Negroes in the Canadas appears in “W. M. G.” “A Sabbath among the Runaway Negroes at Niagara,” Excelsior, 5 (1856), 41. Typical exaggerations include the estimate of Thomas Nye, men­ tioned in chapter 6, note 28, above. 3. See M. C. Urquhart and K. A. H. Buckley, cds., Historical Statistics of Canada (Cambridge, 1965), pp. 1-4, for an analysis of the inaccuracy of the early census * ' j I ! ) i f ! 7 i 235 4. Further, no accurate figures can be given either for the number of fugitive slaves in the whole of the British North American provinces, or for the total number of Negroes. Many attempted to pass for white when in the Canadas, many were not enumerated, and census takers might reasonably have confused fugitive American with free American blacks, since the former often claimed the status of the latter, especially because of their misplaced fear of extradition. 5. Samuel Ringgold Ward, a fugitive slave himself, wrote in his autobiography in 1855 that reaching Canada was a most difficult task, and that "but few comparatively can come.” This would seem a logical conclusion, for the Canadas were far away and little known to the fugitives, and many were told that the colonies were uninhabitable for black men. One must assume that the majority of the total number of fugitive slaves did not reach the Canadian provinces and remained in the free northern states.4 6. This being so, how many might have reached the Canadas? Official reports suggested that the slave states lost perhaps a thousand runaway slaves a year. Assuming this to be so for the period 1830 to 1860, even had every single fugitive reached Canada safely, the total would have been only 30,000.° As it was, many died en route, disappeared and could not be accounted for, returned to the South to escape another time and be counted again (for one man escaping twice is two escapes, although he is still but one man when on Canadian soil), or remained in the North. 7. Thus, contemporary accounts tended to refer to fugitives as “passing through” Syracuse, Albany, or Cleveland “on the way to Canada.’ All of these were assumed to have reached the Canadas. But many—perhaps the majority—stopped short of the Canadian border; and many were counted more than once, “passing through” Albany and, at a later date, “passing through” Syracuse, Rochester, or Buffalo. No doubt, there were many, like William Wells Brown, who set out for Canada West and, finding ice on Lake Erie had curtailed steamer traffic, simply stayed in Ohio.6 returns. The census of 1851 is believed to have underenumerated the province’s total population by a hundred thousand. Both it and that of 1861 undercounted children. 4. Ward, Autobiography, p. 158; Gara, The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad (Lexington, Ky.f 1961), pp. 37-40, 67, 111, 145, 149, 161, 185-90. Gara has drawn upon the Siebert Papers in the Ohio State Historical Society and Harvard's Houghton Library; I have examined both collections and accept his conclusions. 5. However, in 1855 a Southern judge guessed that the slave states had lost “upwards of 60,000 slaves” (Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery In the Ante-Bellum South [New York, 1964], p. 118). 6. See William Edward Farrison, “A Flight Across Ohio: The Escape of William Wells Brown from Slavery,” The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, 61 (1952), 272-82, and Brown’s Narrative . . . (Boston, 1847). A typical entry �lllltfw l1 It ?■ ■> niw/i ■t ’ K Wil||l;ISsji||pl|iii«| i;: ‘1 .I . i ■ U Hi t . • ■« 4 i-s’ : * /.*• < ■ ■ \ .. ...... . M. v. '4 i rm >?] •. I b? i": ■ U - it hi \ Br ; :!! 256 77ie Blacks in Canada A Continental Abolitionism? 237 8. Related to this terminological guesswork was the tendency for abolitionists, in letters, newspaper accounts, and their autobiographies, to rejoice at having put a fugitive “on the stage for Canada.” This phrase could be invoked in Cincinnati—where it meant nothing, since no stage ran from southern Ohio to Canada—as well as in Buffalo, where it had genuine meaning. To count a fugitive who boarded a stage in Cincinnati, or even Oberlin, as being safely in Canada is similar to assuming that a Hungarian refugee who was seen leaving Budapest in 1957 arrived safely in Vienna. 9. The abolitionist press quoted each other at length, usually but not always with credit, and with repetitious figures—all of which served to create the impression that refugees were reaching Canada West in waves. The Voice of the Fugitive would report that forty Negroes had arrived in Amherstburg; six weeks later the same item would be reprinted in another abolitionist journal in New York or Ohio. The forty fugitives one read of in June were the same forty that one had read of in April.7 10. The free Negro population in the northern states, and the total Negro population in British North America —fugitive and free—showed an excess of females. Most fugitives were males. One might conclude that the majority in either population therefore consisted of nonfugitives. 11. Many southerners, who had some reason to wish to exaggerate thenlosses, did not think the Canadas harbored large numbers of fugitive slaves. The New Orleans Commercial Bulletin suggested in 1859 that fifteen hundred slaves had escaped each year for fifty years. This figure applied to the entire South and was said to represent an outer limit of the possible; even so, this would have accounted for but seventy-five thousand fugitives, the upper figure sometimes given for Canada West alone. When the Baltimore Sun said, in 1856, that all living fugitives were worth thirty million dollars, it also suggested that the average value was nearly $9,000, a patent untruth.8 12. The abolitionists, who might also have wished to exaggerate thensuccesses, were less sanguine. In 1861 the American Anti-Slavery Society estimated that the total number of slaves who had escaped was well below seventy-five thousand. Most were thought to be in the North.9 13. The fugitives who did reach the British provinces were by no means entirely happy. A number returned to the northern states, through which they had passed while seeking out the North Star, further reducing the total in the Canadas. At the beginning of the Civil War, more returned. 14. After the Fugitive Slave Bill was passed, abolitionists on the border, such as Henry Bibb, Isaac Rice, and Hiram Wilson, reported that fugitives were arriving at the rate of thirty a day. This seems a substantial figure, and indeed it was when so many descended upon the strained resources of Rice or Wilson. Yet were this so, the post-1850 fugitive black population of Canada West alone (setting aside those who returned to the North or died in the province) would have been 110,000 in 1860, a clear absurdity. At the height of the fugitive influx, the total Negro population of Amherst­ burg—the single most important entry point for refugees—was at most eight hundred; and during the eighteen months of initial panic after pas­ sage of the bill, even the Toronto Globe set the figure at no higher than three thousand.10 15. On occasion free Negroes from the northern states moved into the Canadas and pretended to be fugitives in order to attract the sympathy of Canadian abolitionists or to benefit from the fugitive slave hostels. In 1854, for example, a free black barber from New Hampshire twice raised money to reach Canada by claiming that his master was pursuing him. Many of the begging preachers appear to have been free men.11 16. One of the most publicized of the Underground Railroad depots was that run by the fugitive J. W. Loguen in Syracuse. His activities were not secret, and once in a free state a fugitive could learn of Loguen and his work. Yet in nearly nine years in Syracuse, Loguen—whose account is exaggerated on other matters—saw but fifteen hundred fugitive slaves, not all of whom moved on to the Canadas.12 17. Studies of Negro songs and folk tales in Canada show relatively few references to fugitives. More important, recent investigations of southern slave songs show that Canaan, the Promised Land, and the New Jerusalem were equated most often with Africa and seldom with Canada. In the South, those slaves who contemplated other lands did not appear to have had the British provinces uppermost in their minds.13 would tell how "a female, Patsey Williams, of Kentucky, on her way to Canada, passed through Rochester Thursday" {Stratford [C. W.] Beacon, May 31, 1861). 7. And the "six covered wagons filled with Negroes" hailed by the Owen Sound Comet on May 18, 1852, were the same covered wagons earlier praised by the Detroit press. 8. Gara, Liberty Line, p. 153, quoting Baltimore Sun of March 13. The St. Catharines Journal esU'mated in 1857 that “1,500 to 2,000 slaves" were brought to Canada annually, predicted an end to slavery in the South, and that there would be no blacks in Canada by 1900. See The St Catharines and Lincoln Historical Society, St. Catharines A to Z by Junius 1856 ([St Catharines, 1967]), p. [70]. 9. Ibid., pp. 38-40. 10. Anti-Slavery Reporter, n.s., 4 (1856), 135; Toronto Globe, June 10, 1852; Montreal Gazette, Oct 4, 1860. See W. H. Withrow, “The Underground Railway," RSC, Proceedings and Transactions, sec. 2, 8 (1902), 73; Fred Landon, "Canada’s Part in Freeing the Slave,” OHS, Papers and Records, 17 (1919), 74-84; and Landon, "The Negro Migration to Canada after the Passing of the Fugitive Slave Act," JNH, 5 (1920), 22-36. 11. Siebert, Underground Railroad, p. 249. 12. Loguen, The Rev. J>W. Loguen, as a Slave and as a Freeman: A Narrative of Real Life (Syracuse, N.Y., 1859), p. 444. 13. Helen Creighton, “Folklore of Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia," National i,. >1 ii i Hi JiJ. i ' mimi ifc1*11 ! .~-infill r i : H I Ill i i: ! ill I® '• r !' :: I- ! !I ■ i T: ■ Ji 8 : E> i- m I: i 8' - I";3 V 'V\ K ! i'.'i' ■ Ii i I!rE 1!i * !! • g; : 1.1 i i l, : ; '! i l: ill 1 i �m snnstsui 238 The Blacks in Canada 18. This is not surprising, for the slaves were kept in ignorance of British North America, and most of them were probably not, at the moment of their escape, thinking of taking refuge under the lion’s paw. Slaveholders emphasized the harshness of the northern climate, denied their slaves maps or the education that would enable them to read them, and suggested that all Canadians spoke French, worshipped idols, and executed black men upon arrival. Lewis Clarke, in memoirs published in 1845, said that he had been told that Canadians would skin his head, eat his children, poke out their eyes, and wear their hair as coat collars. Even so astute a Negro as Frederick Douglass thought that Canada was where “the wild goose and the swan repaired at the end of winter” and not “the home of man.” 14 19. These estimates, confusions, and exaggerations were added to by the publications of contemporary observers. In 1860, Reverend William M. Mitchell published in London an influential book on The Under-Ground Railroad. A free Negro who had been a slave driver, Mitchell lived in Toronto after 1855 as an agent for the American Baptist Free Mission Society. He claimed that the railroad had been operating for a quarter of a century and that “nearly two thousand” fugitives reached “Canada” each year. This would have meant a total fugitive population of fifty thousand; and allowing for deaths his estimate was forty-five thousand. This figure, then, is well below many of the estimates, and yet it is given by a man who had every reason to enlarge it, since he used his book as a medium by which he solicited funds for his church and school in Canada West; many of the communitarian settlers condemned him as “a pious fraud.” 10 Later it was suggested that in 1860 alone five hundred Negroes “from Canada” went into the slave states to rescue others, a figure that surely confuses border crossings into the North for business, social, and religious purposes with antislavery journeys. Even so industrious and courageous a person as Harriet Tubman made not more than nineteen (and probably fifteen) such trips over eight years.10 Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 117 (Ottawa, 1950), pp. 86, 127; Creighton, “Songs from Nova Scotia,” Journal of the International Folk Music Council, 12 (I960), 84-85; W. J. Wintemberg, “Some Items of Ncgro-Canadian Folk-Lore,” The Journal of American Folk-Lore, 38 (1925), 621; Arthur Huff Fausct, “Folklore from the Half-Breeds in Nova Scotia," ibid., pp. 300-15; Fausct, cd., Folklore from Nova Scotia (New York, 1931), pp. vii-xiv. 14. Narrative of the Sufferings of Lewis Clarke, during a Captivity of More than Twenty-Five Years, Among the Algerines of Kentucky . . . (Boston, 1845), pp. 3940; Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Hartford, Conn., 1884) pp. 198-99. ^ 15. Mitchell, The Under-Ground Railroad, pp. 3-5, 71, 113. 16. Herbert Aptheker gives this figure in The Negro in the Abolitionist Move­ ment (New York, 1941), p. 16, perhaps drawing it from Benjamin Brawlcy, A Short History of the American Negro, 2nd rev. ed. (New York, 1927), p. 78. A Continental Abolitionism? Another of the chief accounts of the Underground Railroad was by William Still, a free Negro who from 1847 was on the staff of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. Philadelphia was a prime entrepot for fugitive slaves, and many visited Still at his home; during fourteen years of active work on behalf of escaping slaves, includ­ ing a visit to Canada West in 1855, he kept detailed records from which, in 1872, he published his Record of Facts. Subsequent students of the Railroad drew heavily upon this massive volume of 780 finely printed pages, twice revised and extended, of narratives and letters.17 Yet a close reading of Still’s work, together with an examination of his manuscripts, does not support the notion that great streams of fugitives reached British North America through the medium of “the Road.’’ Still gives evidence on 892 fugitives in his volume—although there appear to be more, some are repetitions—and he provides names for most. Of these, he gives evidence clearly showing that 112 reached the Canadas, and he asserts on nine other occasions, without evidence, that fugitives did so; the rest are left departing from Philadelphia with “their faces set Canada-wards.” From the names provided by Still, one may identify five more who reached Canada West, unknown to him. No doubt there were others, for many fugitives changed their names—if not always radically, as when John Atkinson became John Atkins—and a number, not alone on Still’s evi­ dence, could have passed for white after arriving in the provinces. None­ theless, the figures that one may project as safely having reached British North America via Philadelphia are not, despite Still’s frequent usage of Canada as a presumptive goal, very large.18 20. Subsequent scholarship added to the figures. Many volumes re­ peated the estimates. Some, such as Homer Uri Johnson’s From Dixie to Canada: Romances and Realities of the Underground Railroad, pub­ lished in 1894,10 are presented as factual, when they were in truth a pastiche of tales. Other works, such as the highly influential treatment by Wilbur H. Siebert, The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom— the first genuinely scholarly study of the fugitive slaves’ escape routes, published in 1898—further fed the legend. Siebert (whose position at his •.i II I'!;' . || |: l! ;1 [I i$ 11 ! i i; 17. Still, The Underground Rail Road: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, &c . . . (Philadelphia); Siebert, Underground Railroad, p. 234, n. 1; Drew, North-Side View of Slavery, p. 43. I have examined the Letter Book of William Still, and the Journal of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Underground Rail­ road in the PSHS, and they add little to Still’s published account 18. A number of Still’s letters have been reprinted in Carter G. Woodson, ed., “Letters Largely Personal and Private," JNH, 11 (1926), 104-75. See also Larry Gara, "William Still and the Underground Railroad,” Pennsylvania History, 28 (1961), 33-44; and C. Lightfoot Roman, The Underground Railroad (Valleyfield, P.Q., [1933]), passim. 19. (Orwell, Ohio), vol. 1 (no further volumes published); 2nd cd., 1896. : S- ii i . . i! lii: :: i1 h ! 5 ■ �I Hit \\ tji!:-' HU-M-;:-- ) . .V® ■ : >•,.•: -*l ll • .* • 3 *• V J “ § r f'i •r V‘ •’« y £ > A •' l/«' l--.. wk:>\ si mi 240 : ;|-•:. iiMME u> 1 '' ■'«j|tss|tj; , I •- . 'rV5' The Blacks in Canada A Continental Abolitionism? university was in European rather than American history) worked from published materials, a lengthy questionnaire he sent to aging antislavery advocates, and from conversations with former fugitives. He did not verify the published accounts—many of them repetitive, taken from each other— against manuscript sources, and he accepted the answers to his question­ naire at face value. His descriptions and references—to “taking an agency” for the Railroad, or “employees of the U.G.R.R.”—tended to suggest a greater degree of organization than existed.20 Even so careful a scholar as western Ontario’s Fred Landon, the foremost student of the Negro settle­ ments in Canada West, was content to accept from Siebert and elsewhere the estimates of sixty thousand fugitives, did not distinguish carefully between fugitive and free Negroes, and reported that after 1850 “the early trickle which had become a stream turned for a time into a torrent.” Siebert’s work, Landon concluded, was “authoritative.” 21 ■ . c ; • 3 ; if HI ■ i-e : .;-i.;: •, a'-- ' .;.. .• < (..i /i ■: \ i ■ will® ■ :••:>! '•* ; __ ' 241 today are descendants of fugitive slaves, the slave condition, poverty, and America—inheritors of the disgrace of both caste and mark. In 1956 when a journalist, J. C. Furnas, asked acquaintances to guess at the total number of fugitive slaves, the average reply set the figure at 270,000; some answered a million.22 Is it little wonder, then, that one heritage of the fugitive slave period, for Canadians, is an easy assumption of Negro uniformity? The legend of the Underground Railroad and its aftermath has united all Canadian Negroes into a single group in the eyes of white Canadians, reinforcing those prejudices which grow from the notion that an ethnic group must be viewed as a single social unit. To Canadians, Negroes were a monolith, both because of their color and because of their presumed origins as fugitive slaves—origins probably shared by no more than half the Negro population of Canada today. British North Americans who read the literature of the Underground Railroad, the fugitive slaves, and the abolitionists in general also were reinforced in their consciousness of moral purity. Some few accounts—by Drew, Henson, Ward, Israel Campbell, and Austin Steward in particular 23 —remarked upon the incidence of prejudice in the Canadas and compared Canada West to the northern states; but the great mass of fugitive nar­ ratives were unstinting in their praise of the Canadian haven and found no occasion to mention the quasi-segregated pattern of life developing there, the numerous demeaning incidents that the fugitives encountered, or the morass of conflicting claims made upon the confused fugitive by missionary groups, communal settlements, and school societies. In the thirty most widely known fugitive slave accounts published between 1836 and 1859, British North America is mentioned in all but four; of these twenty-six accounts, few can be said to provide anything like a realistic picture of conditions in Canada West.24 The structure of these fugitive slave narratives tended to be similar. Often the fugitive was said to have “much white blood” flowing in his veins, was forced to watch drunken masters down great quantities of whiskey (for the books also preached temperance), and had to listen to s, and b----- h”) from which religion was a foul language (“d—n, b solace taken despite the master’s disapproval. During the flight one was usually helped by Quakers, met a band of Indians, and kissed the earth of Canada. Much was written off as “substantially, if not literally, true,” as Loguen remarked. For the white reader, interest focused upon the exciting That Siebert’s Underground Railroad existed is quite true. Many brave and selfless men labored for it in behalf of the fugitive slaves. Thousands of fugitives did find refuge in Canada West And one should not denigrate the estimates contemporary to 1860 without putting something in their place. This is difficult, for the censuses were inaccurate, the fugitives often stayed in the Canadas only a few weeks, and no figures are available with consistency from school, tax, or voting records, since some but not all provide an indication of color. On the basis of my own research, the best I can offer—in addition to the statement in the Appendix—is that by 1860 the black population of Canada West alone may have reached forty thousand, three-quarters of whom had been or were fugitive slaves or their children, and therefore beneficiaries of the Underground Railroad. But the legend outgrew the reality in Canada, as legends invariably do without the correctives of time, logic, or scholarship. And the legend fed the twentieth-century assumption that nearly all black men in Canada 20. Siebert wrote many articles on the underground railroad, as well as his mas­ sive book, cited previously, The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom (see pp. 29, 70-72, 76, 151). He confuses the date of his interviews, however (compare p. 194 n. 1, and p. 249 n. 4). The uncritical acceptance of his book is shown in the Siebert Papers in the Houghton Library, vol. 45 of which contains letters and reviews (including Canadian ones) on its publication. See, for example, the Montreal Star, Jan. 28,1899. 21. Landon, “Canada and the Underground Railroad," Kingston Historical Society, Reports and Proceedings (1923), p. 17, and “The Underground Railway along the Detroit River," Michigan History, 39 (1955), 63-68. The chief volumes that build upon Siebert are: Hildegarde Hoyt Swift, The Railroad to Freedom (New York, 1932); Henrietta Buckmaster [Henkle], Let My People Go: The Story of the Under­ ground Railroad (New York, 1941); and William Breyfogle, Make Free: The Story of the Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, 1958). I.. : f 22. Furnas, Goodbye to Uncle Tom (New York, [1956]), p. 239. 23. Henson, Ward, Steward, and Drew have been cited previously. Campbell’s account, an unusually able one, was Bond and Free: or, Yearnings for Freedom . . . (Philadelphia, 1861); see especially pp. 199, 203-39, 251-64, 291-97. 24. See those titles discussed in Nelson, “Negro in Literature," pp. 60-67. : • '{ ! !. i;! ill W o i -ii, '■I: I" '■'ii I® f*i IF£ i .. !$ 1 I i i - u i? ■I1 '•i m nHi . i; ' i : ! if ,;S I£ J! i •J i: 1 j! l « t tt ; •i : ■ ; i if iiiii i ifl i ii ' �■11 I ;:• .V kU :• S- • ■'■ Sjfi jd ...a. '»: A j !»vV- - | Uy---'-‘ 1?^ * '•i-A } pirn i;V ! i..i ■ j j h i ■ '• i\ i^iPiLWi®!! uv*** flu-. b'; ::,.: tif* : : •] i| 242 The Blacks in Canada moment of escape from the master and the long journey northward to freedom; a secondary interest lay in accounts of life on the plantation, culminating in a series of brutalities which precipitated the decision to flee. Little space was given to the post-escape life of the fugitive, in part because the narratives often were written soon after the fugitive had arrived in the North or in Canada, and in larger part because the later aspects of the story held less intrinsic interest. Even Benjamin Drew, in his A North-Side View of Slavery—published in Boston in 1856 by John P. Jewett, the enterprising publisher of Uncle Tom’s Cabin—gave most of his space to accounts of how the fugitives escaped, despite his announced intention to provide a record of “the history and condition of the colored population of Upper Canada.” Representative accounts were those by J. W. Loguen, Moses Roper, and Laura Haviland, and those on Harriet Tubman. Loguen was born in Tennessee, the natural son of a white man and a slave mother. His flight to freedom, in 1834-35, was a daring undertaking; during his five years in Canada West he learned to read, took a two-hundred-acre farm (which he lost because of a partner’s bad judgment), and spoke of acquiring British citizenship. He turned to teaching school in Utica, New York; became an elder in the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (and in 1868, a bishop); and was for some years a teacher and minister in Syracuse, where he was one of the prime movers in the “Jerry rescue,” leading to his taking temporary refuge with Hiram Wilson in Canada. He died in 1872. Loguen’s autobiography, which is contradictory and unclear on dates and sequences, became an important primary source for historians. Although Loguen stated that there was no Underground Railroad at the time of his flight, the Dictionary of American Biography later would note how his escape revealed that “preliminary surveys” had been made for the under­ ground system and that “a few lines already ran . . . as unerringly as railroads run through the large towns and cities.” 25 On the other hand Roper, whose narrative sold widely in England, went on to London. Later he became famous in British North America through a lecture tour.20 It was in Sarah Bradford’s biography of Harriet Tubman in 1869 that several of the songs allegedly sung as the fugitives crossed the Suspension 25. See Loguen, as a Slave and as a Freeman, which despite its date (1859) con­ tains letters for 1860; Wfilliam] H. A[Uison], “Jermain W. Loguen," DAB 11 (1943), 368-69; James Egert Allen, The Negro in New York (New York, 1964)*, pp. 74-75J and Rhodes House, Oxford, Anti-Slavery Papers: Wilson to Scoble, Feb. 24, 1852! The Syracuse Public Library’s copy of Loguen’s book contains a note indicating that he was sixty-three when he died, which suggests that he was bom in 1810 (the DAB says 1813); the New York Tribune for Oct. 1, 1872, contains an obituary. 26. Roper’s account was A Narrative of the Adventures and Escapes of Moses Roper, from American Slavary, 3rd ed. (London, 1839). /I Continental Abolitionism? 243 Bridge at the Niagara frontier were first recorded. The most famous words betrayed abolitionist and non-Negro origins, however, even as printed in the Bradford account: I’m now embarked for yonder shore, Where a man’s a man by law. De iron horse will bear me o’er, To ‘shake de lion’s paw’; Oh, righteous Father, wilt thou not pity me, And help me on to Canada, where all de slaves are free. Oh I heard Queen Victoria say, That if we would forsake, Our native land of slavery, And come across de lake, Dat she was standing on de shore, Wid arms extended wide, To give us all a peaceful home, Beyond de rolling tide. To this Bradford added, “No doubt the simple creatures . . . expected to cross a wide lake instead of a rapid river, and to see Queen Victoria with her crown upon her head, waiting with arras extended wide, to fold them all in her embrace.” 27 Laura Haviland, a white Canadian-born Quaker “Superintendent of the Underground,” also was the subject of much postemancipation writing in Canada. Her narrative, A Woman’s Life Work, although rambling, un­ clear, and filled with fictitious dialogue, unquestionably shows that she aided several fugitives to escape, knew Hiram Wilson and Isaac Rice, and was to the Detroit frontier what Harriet Tubman was to the Niagara. In addition to her active part in the Anderson extradition case, Laura Havi­ land taught school and, hoping to avoid denominational strife, opened a Christian Union Church in the Puce River area in 1852-53 with the support of Henry Bibb and two Detroit philanthropists. She suffered all the publicized rigors of the Canadian climate, frequently awakening “with snow sifting on her face, and not infrequently [finding] the snow half an inch or more deep on her bed upon rising in the morning.” 28 The point at 27. Sarah Bradford, Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People, 2nd ed. (New York, 1886); Smith College, Sophia Smith Collection: Martha Coffin Wright to Lucretia Coffin Mott, n.d. [18601; Earl Conrad, Harriet Tubman (Washington, 1943), passim. Conrad suggests there were fifteen trips, Bradford mentions nineteen. The author visited the Harriet Tubman Memorial Home, near Auburn, New York, but found no useful memorabilia. 28. See Mildred E. Danforth, A Quaker Pioneer: Laura Haviland, Superintendent of the Underground (New York, 1961), passim (the quotation is from p. 122); , '! ; i: i 2 tut II: i ! ■ill Mi I ; i p t •1 IIS a ■ i -j u !i kus ■i ti 1 III 3;ir iia i PI i■Hi ■ t 1 - ii lli ill! IS I I !!■ p ill I ii! S i ■ �— ■ s ij . *-*■4 ' Uy v ' \ i a . V- . v! . ■ . ■■ . ■ A ' . - Hi >; it . - ra::% IteigsBlsesystlaSlipl I I • - •■:■■■ ■ - .■ lilt E -4 (i I i! I 244 The Blacks in Canada A Continental Abolitionism? others who left moving mcmoirs-S ClariTe, »m»Brown! Wilham Harrison—were honest, for on the whole they were, but that their Sfern aV^ r;r0t *\ayS USed honeStIy by those wh0 generalized from them, adapted them to their own purposes, reprinted out-of-context extracts British North!America u^n^the^asis^of them °f » ^ * 2. zxsztzs z ai'ISrfJ"''"’ MetI,0diStS.0r BaPasts' * i™, P^sed any religion • y few were from ciUes. A number were free men Of 114 refugees upon whom Drew commented, twelve were born free and kidnappcd into slavery or fled from fear of being kidnapped. Five were passing as white. Ages ranged widely, with many being middle-aged (or as Isaac Rice defined the term, over thirly-iree) and many much fwithfall !e?!i aU Werf destitute» cominS as one said “like terrapins, L, Ve ^adi 0n 0Ur backs-” A number arrived heavily armed.20 Their attemnLTf01!!^17/38 gtnU'mQ’ and on several occasions Negroes southerners wh0 were f00lish * » route6 £u1gitivest,entered Canada West by a greater variety of routes than the earher refugees, and outside the Utopian colonies they New York ,h * Fr°m 0gdensburS Cape Vincent, in SttrataL'ym-ss-ifsa: 245 usually for Kingston, Cobourg, or Toronto. They made their way over the lakes on steamers, in smaller craft, and in one instance by floating across on a wooden gate—to land at Point Pelee, the ports of Burwell, Rowan, Talbot, and Stanley, at Long Point and Fort Erie, and elsewhere. The steamer Arrow, moving between Sandusky and Detroit under its noted Captain J. W. Keith, transported a large number of fugitives; and small vessels under Robert Wilson put in with “grain” which had been sent out from an Ashtabula warehouse for human cargo. Toronto, Brantford, Oak­ ville, Collingwood, London, and the village of Shrewsbury, saw sharp rises in their black populations as a result of such traffic. Others went among the French near Windsor but, finding them “distant,” moved away from the Detroit frontier, several establishing a short-lived all-Negro town, New Kentucky, in 1860. In 1851 the Voice of the Fugitive said that twenty-five hundred Negroes were at work on the railroad, and Ingersoll attracted a number once the line was open to Windsor because wood for the railway engines was cut and stored there. Some few went to the oil field near Petrolia, at Oil Springs.31 Just how sharp the rise was in specific communities cannot be said. In 1852 Isaac Rice thought there were between one and two thousand Ne­ groes in Hamilton, while there were “not far from one hundred” in Brantford and between two and three hundred in London. He set the black population of Chatham at fifteen hundred, and on the Detroit fron­ tier at four thousand. Two years later Drew found a thousand Negroes in Toronto, mostly in the northwest section of the city, which then had a population of forty-seven thousand. He thought there were forty Negroes in Galt, two hundred in Windsor, five hundred in Amherstburg (of a total population of two thousand), nearly the same in Colchester (of fifteen hundred population), and two thousand in or near Chatham of a total population of six thousand. Dr. Howe found seven hundred Negroes in St. Catharines, although the census had reported 472, and in Hamilton he found five hundred where the census had enumerated only 62—unlikely, given the large numbers reported for nearly a decade earlier. The census !■ ''.I I! I : i pri i'iji m i I ; ; Mi f1 1 til : Si* \i\ I ' ■ m \ ir ;! ''J eI m i , i " ■ii •I 4 ‘ di^'o?M^CmA^rab«Cti-0n,cSee 35 eXampIcs* TPL’ scraPb00k of ^tracts from hT £ I0* 18591 The Ho™rab>e Elijah Leonard: A 0a}-> n-d->, PP- 47—48; Toronto Globe, Oct. 8, 1858 Sept. 9 1859Orlo Miller, Gargoyles & Gentlemen: A History of St. Paul's Cathedral London Makers M^Canada^The R°bert True . . |j 1 ; , ' W- 31. Montreal Gazette, Aug. 10, 1853; Drew, p. 300; London (Ont) Free Press, June 21, 1926, June 30, 1956; Oakville (Ont.) Weekly Sun, Sept 7, 1960; Siebcrt, Underground Railroad, pp. 83, 148-49; O. K. Watson, “Along the Talbot Road,” Kentiana (n.p., 1939), p. 67; O. K. Watson, “Early History of Shrewsbury," Kent Historical Society, Papers and Addresses, 6 (1924), 83-84; Lauriston, “Negro Col­ onies,” p. 96; John Nettleton, “Reminiscences, 1857-1870," Huron Institute, Papers and Records, 2 (1914), 13-15; Fred London, “Over Lake Erie to Freedom," North­ west Ohio Historical Quarterly, 17 (1945), 132-38; Landon, “Fugitive Slaves in Lon­ don Ontario before 1860," London and Middlesex Historical Society, Transactions, 10 (1919), 37; Landon, “The Fugitive Slave Law and the Detroit River Frontier, 185061," Detroit Historical Society Bulletin, 7 (1950), 5-9. i n Is ; ! i !. !f] I; ! 1 i : |!'i ill i ft ii ;i .V . 'yl: ■' i] J �M. ; ■ J? J, • ilj ■ • a > 246 The Blacks in Canada reported 510 Negroes in Toronto, while Dr. Howe found 934. The proper numbers were not known and cannot now be recovered, but it is clear that while the Negroes were not so numerous as subsequent myth-making and contemporary abolitionist propaganda would lead one to believe, they nonetheless were substantial, and on occasion—in Chatham, for example—comprised as much as a third of the population.32 Conditions for the fugitives were, as before 1800, mixed. Some adjusted readily and soon enjoyed relative prosperity. John W. Lindsey, who could pass for white, was worth $10,000 or more, as were Aaron Siddles and Henry Blue of Chatham. John Little and his wife—who moved into Queen’s Bush—came to have over one hundred acres under good cultiva­ tion, could lend a friend $2,000, and owned a horse and carriage. In London, A. B. Jones, who had arrived penniless, soon owned several properties, one worth $4,000; and his brother, Alfred T., ran a prosperous pharmacy. Some fugitives became brakemen on the Great Western Rail­ road, which paid well, while others helped clear new lands around Col­ chester. Apprentices earned $2.50 a week, and waiters, especially around Niagara and in Toronto, received wages of $12.00 a month. Still, lodgings might cost $15.00 a month and earnings were seldom sufficient to replace clothing left behind, to pay for the journey to Canada of wives and children who had remained in the South, or to pay doctor’s bills. Most fugitives, badly dressed for the Canadian winters, arriving “like frogs in Egypt,” were consumptive: one Toronto woman lost ten children from tuberculosis.33 Thomas F. Page, a young man from the upper South, reported “I do not like Canada, or the Provinces. I have been to St. John, N.B., Lower Province, or Lower Canada, also St Catharines, C.W., and all around the Canada side, and I do not like it at all. The people seem to be so queer.” The more frequent sentiment probably lay closer to that expressed by John H. Hill, a skilled carpenter and an officer in a company of Negro rifle guards, who wrote to William Still, “I wants you to let the whole United States know we are satisfied here because I have seen more Pleasure since I came here than I saw in the U.S. the 24 years that I served my master.” “It is true,” he added the following year, “that I have to work very hard for comfort but I would not exchange 32. Amherstburg Quarterly Mission Journal, 1, Sept 25, 28, Oct 12, 1852; Drew, pp. 94-95, 118-19, 136, 147-48, 234-35, 321, 348-49; Siebcrt, pp. 220-21; Howe, Refugees from Slavery, pp. 15-16. In 1843 Hiram Wilson had put the Negro popula­ tion of Canada West at sixteen thousand (BPL, Samuel J. May, Jr. Papers, 1: circular, Sept 30). 33. London Free Press, June 12, 1954; M. Murray, “Stories of the Underground Railroad," The Methodist Magazine and Review, 48 (1898), 221-22; Mitchell, UnderGround Railroad, pp. 158-67; Siebert, pp. 205, 223; Drew, pp. 149-53, 198-233, 250, 270-73; Still, Underground Rail Road, pp. 2, 51, 77, 152, 319, 324, 490, 598. A Continental Abolitionism? -yrnii Jr : •; Hi 247 ’ 1 i i i l with ten thousand slave that are equel [jtc] with their masters. I am Happy, Happy.” “Those that will work,” remarked another, “do well— those that will not—not; it is the same here as everywhere. It is the best poor man’s country that I know of.”34 Until the economic panic of 1857, this judgment was a fair one. Jerry of the famous rescue became a barrel-maker in Kingston, and the equally famous Shadrach opened a restaurant in Montreal. In Toronto one Lemon John prospered by peddling his special ice creams about the streets, and in Saint John the city’s ice trade was the monopoly of a Negro, Robert Whetsel. Joseph Mink became wealthy by managing a line of stages running from Toronto. In Colchester, Nathan S. Powell survived by manufacturing and selling Powell’s Indian Tonic. In Bronte a refugee opened the first blacksmith shop; in Otterville a fugitive ran the only saloon. Still others made rope, worked as fishermen, in the brickyards and slaughterhouses, in livery stables, and as carpenters. Many women were servants, as they had been in the South, or opened dress-making or wig shops. In Hamilton, Negroes were in charge of the dead cart during the 1850s—a fact that cuts two ways—and New Brunswick had a black hangman who was regarded as standing apart from humanity, as had been the executioner of Quebec, Mathew Leveille of Martinique, in the previous century. Many Negroes, it was said, were “well dressed, quite clean and interesting,” and owned houses that were “patterns of neat­ ness.” 35 Indeed, the desire of most fugitives, once they had looked about and had overcome the initial period of adjustment, was to acquire a house and land. Most of the whites shared this goal, representative as it was of the middle-class values to which the fugitives often attached themselves. One, John Long, had owned land in the area that became Toronto in the 1830s, 34. Still, p. 333, Oct. 6, on Page; pp. 194, 197, Hill to Still, n.d. Pate 1853], and Sept. 14, 1854; Robert Jones to Still, Aug. 9, 1856, p. 272; and pp. 250-54; Drew, P. 172. 35. Fort Malden “Fugitive Slave File"; New York Tribune, Oct. 24, 1857; London Free Press, July 5, 1924, April 30, 1932; Toronto Star, Aug. 11, 1943; NBM, "Whetscl Family" file; The Life of Rev. James Thompson, The World’s Wonder (Rich­ mond, Va., 1885), pp. 13-23; Eber M. Pettit, Sketches in the History of the Under­ ground Railroad . . . (Fredonia, N.Y., 1879), p. 53; Nina Moore Tiffany, “Stories of the Fugitive Slaves, II: Shadrach," The New England Magazine, n.s., 2 (1890), 283; Blodwen Davies, Storied York: Toronto Old and New (Toronto, 1931), p. 68; Marjorie Freeman Campbell, A Mountain and a City: The Story of Hamilton (Toronto, 1966), p. 113; Lloyd A. Macham, A History of Moncton Town and City, 1855-1965 (Moncton, N.B., 1965), p. 67; A. Carle Smith, The Mosaic Province of New Brunswick (Saint John, 1965), p. 93; Andrd Lachance, Le Bourreau au Canada sous le regime frangais (Quebec, 1966), pp. 79-81; Colonial Church and School Society Report for 1856-7 (PAC microfilm): A-325, p. 55, Nov. 1, 1856. ; :: 1 j'jj i i ! 1! in ii ■ ai\ 1 ; ■; !' i3 ;! if'! j; $ ft T P froi . 4 i t; D ; \i III Iit: 1 mi?ii £ $ < : ii ii ill t ai iff a w i . ■1 i ii jf| i I1 •I I tm ii i ? 'lit>il Jii 1 1! m :: \J& i �248 A Continental Abolitionism? The Blacks in Canada and a number had acquired property in the Niagara district before 1850 and without benefit of communitarian practices. By 1853, one investigator estimated, 276 Negroes in London owned real estate valued at $13,504— an average higher than for whites in the city. In 1862 Dr. Howe found that one in eleven of Malden’s Negroes paid taxes on property, while one in thirteen in Chatham were so taxed. (In both cases, one in every three or four whites owned ratable property.) But in Windsor one in five blacks, and only one in seven whites, were ratepayers. In this case, however, the average assessment on white-owned property was $18.76, while on black it was $4.18; in Chatham the figures had been $10.63 and $4.98 respectively.36 And prejudice operated to keep even those Negroes who could afford better properties from moving else­ where. Few fugitives attempted to deny that they encountered substantial prejudice. In the 1850s city directories began to designate those residences and businesses owned by Negroes. Blacks were expelled from camp meet­ ings, and those churchmen who—like Cronyra in London—wished to help educate the fugitive, now argued that separate schools were needed because of white opposition. Dresden was called “Nigger Hole” by those who had opposed the Dawn settlement; racial jokes increased in the press; Negroes who, a decade or two earlier, had been able to employ whites to work for them no longer could do so. Throughout British North America blacks were thought, by some, to be responsible for “all the outrageous crimes, and two thirds of the minor ones”; chicken coops and laundry lines were said to require special protection where black men were about; and their women were blamed for an alleged rise in prostitution. Hotels in Hamilton, Windsor, Chatham, and London refused blacks admission, and they could not purchase cabin-class tickets on the Chatham steamer. The Montreal Gazette, turning back to the Nova Scotian experience, suggested that the fugitives should be sent to Sierra Leone. Beginning in 1855, auctioneers at the sale of building lots in the Windsor area refused to take bids from any Negroes, the city’s Herald remarking that an owner had the right to “preserve his property from deterioration.” Negroes should wish to stay with their own people, and if they did not they were welcome to leave. To oppose intermarriage and social mixing was not to be pro­ slavery. So long as blacks remained in Canada West, the Herald warned, they would “ever have to contend with their superiors,” and thus one 36. Edwin C. Giullet, Toronto from Trading Post to Great City (Toronto, 1934), p. 310; [Archibald Bremner], City of London Ontario. Canada: The Pioneer Period and the London of To-day (London, 1897), pp. 60-61; Howe, pp. 61-62; Siebert, p. 232. 249 helped them by refusing to sell them land. Canada West had become, according to Samuel Ringgold Ward, writing in what John Scoble called his “belligerent spirit,” “beneath and behind Yankee feeling” in its colorphobia.37 The widely held Canadian view that there was a disproportionate number of Negroes in prison, jails, or the insane asylum was current well before 1850—and it cannot be supported. In 1851 the provincial institu­ tion for the insane in Canada West had only one Negro among 220 patients. The Reports of Penitentiary Inspectors tended to emphasize the “high percentage” of Negroes behind bars, while noting that fugitives educated only to slavery naturally were more prone to petty crime. Nor are the percentages particularly high: in fact, of the 3,223 persons who enjoyed Toronto’s jail in 1859, 117 were black. Of 1,057 women committed in 1856, only eight were black; and of the Kingston penitentiary’s 125 prisoners, eight also were Negroes. But each Negro offense received major publicity: when blacks burned down the barns of three of their opponents; when a Negro stabbed a colleague in a raffle, another murdered an Indian, and two beat a white to death—all in 1852; when one Negro killed another over noise in a Negro church in 1853; and when two black men murdered a mail carrier in 1859 and were hanged. Through­ out these years the begging preachers and agents continued to be much in the news over their suits, assaults, and petty thefts.38 Public opinion considered that fugitives were too often not punished for minor crimes out of sympathy for their condition: “it was found,” according to the Montreal Gazette as early as 1842, “to be a sufficient reason to be an Indian or t ■ ;\ ' ill ' Vl i t. •: ; 37. Windsor Herald, Oct. 20, Nov. 3, 1855; Montreal Gazette, April 18, Sept. 16, 1851; Sarnia Observer, Nov. 25, 1859; Hamilton Canadian Illustrated News, 1 (1862), 8, 44, (1863), 131; Chambers, Things as They are in America, pp. 2728; Dclany, Niger Valley Exploring Party, p. 71; Ward, Autobiography, pp. 14446, 202; Lauriston, Romantic Kent, p. 383; Edith C. Firth, ed., The Town of York, 1815-1834: A Further Collection of Documents of Early Toronto (Toronto, 1966), pp. 333-34. 38. See, for example, Windsor Herald, Jan. 4, 1856; London (C.W.) Times, May 4, 1849; Toronto News of the Week, Aug, 28, Nov. 6, Dec. 24, 1852, March 12, 1853; The Friend of Man, Aug. 30, 1837; Brantford Expositor, July 31, Aug. 6, 1852; the Inspector’s Reports in the Appendixes to the Journal of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada, 1837-38, and the Journals of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, 1841-43, 1860; Linton, Liquor Law, p. 24; and James Silk Buckingham, Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Other British Provinces in North America, with a Plan of National Colonization (London, n.d.), P- 67. Of 5,346 people committed to Toronto jail in 1857, only 78 were Negroes (W. G. Brownlow and Abram Pryne, Ought American Slavery to be Perpetuated? . . [Philadelphia, 1858], pp. 237-38). 4• 1! ■H' �mm dnlHp. '• ! 250 The Blacks in Canada A Continental Abolitionism? 251 Negro to escape the gallows, no matter what crime they may have com­ mitted.” 38 In short, the record was broken even before it was played. This rising tide of prejudice, remarked upon by nearly all of the white members of Canadian antislavery organizations and many of the refugees themselves, was ascribed by most to four groups of people. All singled out the American-born settlers—or those who had acquired “Yankee ways”—who moved into the Niagara peninsula and, in greater numbers, into the extreme southwest corner of the province. Most had occasion to include Irish settlers as a source of anti-Negro sentiment. Others suggested that former planters from the West Indies and their children—having lost their patrimony and now displaced from what they considered to have been a leading position in Imperial society—were enemies of the black man. Finally, nearly everyone had an amorphous body of villains to blame, those “lower orders” of whatever ethnic or national origin (including but not limited to the Irish settlers) with whom the Negroes competed for work and with whose women black men allegedly were able to make their way. To prove any of these contentions would be impossible; of the fugitive at the time no proof was asked. They were, many perceived, what James G. Birney—twice the Liberty Party’s presidential candidate— had predicted they would be: “an inferior class" in the “bleak and hyper­ borean regions. » 40 Why this should have been so may not be answered clearly. Certainly imported prejudices played a role. Certainly the pressures created by a growing awareness of mass Negro arrivals, to compete for labor and allegedly to add to the crime rate, contributed. The persistence of selfconscious Negro associations, of separate communities, of improvement societies such as the Sons of Uriah or the Negro Order of Odd Fellows, and of all-Negro churches, were both a symptom of prejudice and a con­ tributor to it Unquestionably the flow of fugitives changed in character after 1850 as a result of the Fugitive Slave Act, that desperate compromise by which nationalist American statesmen attempted yet again to hold the union together. The new fugitives were not only more numerous but poorer, more ready to take fright, armed and suspicious. Among British North Americans there was a growing awareness of the many moral ambiguities thrust upon them by the fugitives and their problems. This awareness helped to induce that confusion which has always been present when Canadians have had to deal with issues not of their own making but arising mostly from the unfortunate circumstance of sharing a continent with a giant neighbor where confusion and moral ambiguity were magni­ fied, more passionate, and seemingly endemic. In short, and as we have seen, British North Americans shared the patterns of prejudice found in the North, although these patterns appeared in colors muted by distance from the central scene of action. So, too, were these patterns varied even within Canada West, and economic realities again provided the conditions that led to those differences. Systematic prejudice—in the schools, in the churches, in the sale of property—was mild in the eastern part of the southwestern peninsula, in Hamilton, and north into Toronto, while it was relatively stringent in the western part. One explanation for this observable difference—noted at the time and clear from the evidence now—is that Hamilton and Toronto were pros­ perous, especially after 1854 and even after 1857 despite the slump, and that the building trades were in need of much semiskilled labor, so that Irish and Negro alike could find jobs; while at the frontier on the west, opposite Detroit, the economy was not able to absorb the new arrivals, Prejudice, always individual, was also a matter of the moment, the place, and the market, however, for discrimination was widely practiced in St. Catharines, despite this geographical generalization. But if many of the cherished beliefs of Canadians—then and since about the haven they provided fugitives from federal marshals are myths, or at least exaggerated, a countervailing fact also remains indisputably true: in British North America, the Negro remained equal in the eyes of the law—after the abolition of slavery, and setting aside the growing tendency toward segregated education, a most damaging exception to be dealt with in a later chapter. Although challenged in 1851, Negro jurors and jury foremen served in Toronto and elsewhere, and Negroes gave evidence with full legal protection. They generally were taxed as the white man was, were punished in no harsher a manner than any other criminals, and cast their votes openly and with impunity. British consuls looked after the black Canadian’s interests when he was abroad with the same care that any British subject might expect, and even American consuls in the British provinces treated Negro Canadians with the respect that was their due.41 If social and economic realities did not conform to legislative and 39. [D. N. Haskell], The Boston Committee in Canada: A Series of Eight Letters reprinted from the Boston Atlas (Boston, 1851), p. 19; Anti-Slavery Reporter, n.s., 4 (1856), 134, 166, 229-30; The Provincial Freeman, July 4, 1857. 40. Quoted in William H. and Jane H. Pease, eds., The Antislavery Argument (Indianapolis, Ind., 1965), p. 46. 41. Anti-Slavery Reporter, June 21, 1843, and n.s., 4 (1856), 230, Voice of the Fugitive, July 2, 1851; Toronto Globe, Oct 8, 1859; Ottawa Citizen, May 3, 1867« PRO, BTI/479: Francis Waring, consul, Norfolk, Va., to J. T. Briggs, Oct 25, and ends., in re New Brunswick Negro Antonio Nicholas; NA, Foreign Semce Post Records, C.D., Halifax: cases of destitute Negro seamen (e.g., no. 6, R. W. Fraser : •• n ft �M ; t i i Hill mm 7> • .................................... iUiill 252 A Continental Abolitionism? The Blacks in Canada X ■.(« r :• ■i to William L. Marcy, Nov. 8, 1853, and no. 7, Dec. 14, 1854); Murray, “AngloAmerican Anti-Slavery Movement," pp. 324-27. 42. A-325, Report for 1856-7, p. 60: Nov. 1. 43. A longer version of the material that follows appears in Robin W. Winks, “‘A Sacred Animosity’: Abolitionism in Canada," in Martin Duberman, ed., The Anti-Slavery Vanguard: New Essays on the Abolitionists (Princeton, NJ., 1965), PP301-42. * 253 events in and after 1850 in particular—the Larwill election campaign, a public petition relating to segregated schools, and the passage of the Fugitive Slave Bill—made such a society imperative in the minds of those who had followed the color question in the United States with growing apprehension. There was a ready-made group of Negro sympathizers in the white Canadians who had contributed to the support of Wilberforce, Dawn, and Elgin.44 Foremost among Canada’s abolitionists was George Brown, the powerful editor of the province’s most important newspaper, the Toronto Globe. Brown had shown an interest in the condition of the Negro in Canada from the journal’s inception in 1844. He, his brother Gordon, his father Peter, and his sister Isabella formed the nucleus of an antislavery society in Toronto; and Isabella’s husband, Thomas Henning, was the first secre­ tary of the Canadian Anti-Slavery Society as well as a member of the Globe's editorial staff until 1854.45 Far more restrained than Garrison’s Liberator and far more forthright than the lesser abolition sheets, the Globe provided the antislavery group with a forum for the “sacred ani­ mosity” its owners held toward slavery.40 In his paper Brown attacked Henry Clay, the Fugitive Slave Law, Larwill, Prince, and separate schools with equal force, for—as he wrote—Canadians had the “duty of preserv­ ing the honour of the continent” against slavery.47 The Toronto-based group were able to ground their work on previously established channels of communication. In 1827 Samuel Cornish and a Quebec-educated Jamaican, John Browne Russwurm, editors of Freedom’s Journal, which they published in New York for two years, had sent agents into Canada to solicit support. Negroes in Windsor had established a short­ lived antislavery society there, and Upper Canadians, led by John Roaf, a Congregational minister, had attended a temperance convention in Sara­ toga Springs, New York, in 1837, making contact with many American abolitionists.48 As a result, Reverend Ephraim Evans, a Wesleyan Meth- legal forms, those forms at least limited the ways in which prejudice might make itself felt. Still, the hierarchy of the unequal will have its way. In British North America, as in the United States, the Kingdom of Individuals would be long in coming. Even those who felt most committed in that cause, mem­ bers of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada and others who worked with the abolitionists to cleanse North America of that which George Brown accepted as a continental rather than merely American stain, were limited in their effectiveness by that sense of paternalism which may so easily shade into a racism no less hurtful for its presumptive benevolence; for such paternalism reveals the quiet arrogance of those who feel that they have all to give to an underprivileged group and nothing to learn from it Can one condone wholly—or condemn entirely—the blind, well-meaning certitude of that missionary-teacher who, reporting to the Colonial Church and School Society in 1856 of her Negro charges, concluded that “The worse they are, the more need there is for British Christians to instruct, enlighten and reform them”? 42 The major thrust in the Canadian contribution to worldwide abolition­ ism came not from the British mission boards, the self-segregated, selfhelp communities, the begging ministers, or the isolated Negroes of the Maritime Provinces. These groups were interested in helping those blacks who were citizens in British North America and in easing the adjustment of the fugitives. Certainly individual members of some of the communities helped to flay slavery through the press or hoped to weaken it by journeys south of the border to guide fugitives toward freedom. Certainly, too, many reasoned that any aid given to fugitives in British North America made the provinces additionally attractive, and that by creating a magnet for runaway slaves, they were helping to sap the strength of the institution. But as collective bodies they did not attack slavery directly. Abolitionism in British North America was expressed through attempts to subdue prejudice within the provinces and efforts to lend vocal and moral support, and limited financial aid, to the more exposed but also far more effective abolitionist groups in the United States.43 The first major Canadian antislavery society was created to combat the growing evidence of organized, group prejudice in Canada West. Three ilk_____ ■ ' il ■ 44. On the Negro issue in politics, see Winks, “Abolitionism in Canada," pp. 31718, n. 28. 45. J. M. S. Careless, Brown of the Globe, 1: The Voice of Upper Canada, 18181859 (Toronto, 1959), pp. 102-03; Syracuse Univ., Gerrit Smith Miller Papers: Henning to Smith, Feb. 2, 13, 1861, Oct. 12, 1863; Columbia Univ., Gay Papers: Henning to Gay, May 27, 1852, Feb. 18, 1854, April 11, 1855. 46. A phrase drawn from the Toronto Globe's notice, on June 8, 1860, of Charles Sumner’s speech before the Senate, “The Barbarism of Slavery." See The Works of Charles Sumner (Boston, 1874), J, 124. 47. See, for example, editorials of Feb. 7, March 19, May 28, Aug. 10, Sept 19, Oct. 5, Nov. 9, 1850; Feb. 22, March 6, 27, April 3, 12, 18, May 10, 13, June 20, Sept. 18, 25, Nov. 27, Dec. 18, 1851; and March 24, 1852. 48. Aptheker, Abolitionist Movement, p. 33; Washington, Story of the Negro, 2, 292-93; M. A. Garland, “Some Frontier and American Influences in Upper Canada V I !• . •t A ' i; a a ■ 1 ■ iI if i$ I K Hi 1Hi ! s 11i I1if: I '•Vi ■ -p, ;* : V '■$: : I II � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lyman Wilmot House Description An account of the resource This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deerfield Public Library Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Public Library Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Continental Abolitionism? The Blacks in Canada: A History Description An account of the resource Photocopy of a chapter from The Blacks in Canada entitled "A Continental Abolitionism?" with some highlighting. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Winks, Robin W. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Yale University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013.032 1851 Canadian Census 1861 Canadian Census A Flight Across Ohio: The Escape of William Wells Brown from Slavery A Narrative of the Adventures and Escapes of Moses Roper from American Slavery A Quaker Pioneer: Laura Haviland Superintendent of the Underground A Sabbath Among the Runaway Negroes at Niagara A Sacred Animosity: Abolitionism in Canada A Short History of the American Negro A Woman's Life Work Abolitionism Abolitionist Movement Abolitionist Press Abolitionists Abram Pryne Africa African American Churches African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Albany New York Along the Talbot Road Alvin McCudy Amelia Harris American Anti-Slavery Society American Baptist Free Mission Society American Civil War American Philosophical Society American Revolution Americanborn Canadians Amherstburg Ontario Canada Anderson Extradition Case Anglo American Anti-Slavery Movement Anti-Slavery Reporter Anti-Slavery Society of Canada Antonio Nicholas Aptheker Archibald Bremner Arrow Arthur Huff Fauset Ashtabula Ohio Auburn New York Augustus Diamond Austin Steward Authentic Narratives Autobiography Baltimore Sun Baptist Church Benjamin Brawley Benjamin Drew Bond and Free: or Booker T. Washington Boston Atlas Boston Massachusetts Brantford Expositor Brantford Ontario Canada British Mission Boards British North America British Provinces Brown of the Globe Buffalo New York Burwell Ontario Canada C. Lightfoot Roman Cambridge Massachusetts Canada Canada East Canada Nova Scotia New Brunswick and the Other British Provinces in North America with a Plan of National Colonization Canada West Canada's Part in Freeing the Slave Canadian Antislavery Organizations Canadian Antislavery Societies Canadian Censuses Canadian Liberty Political Party Canadian Racial Prejudice Canadian Racism Canadian Segregation Cape Vincent New York Carter G. Woodson Charles Sumner Chatham Ontario Canada Chatham Steamer Christian Union Church Cincinnati Ohio City of London Ontario Canada: The Pioneer Period and the London of Today Cleveland Ohio Cobourg Ontario Canada Collingwood Ontario Canada Colonial Church and School Society Columbia University Columbia University Gay Papers Communal Settlements Congregational Church Creighton Cronym D.N. Haskell Dawn Detroit Historical Society Detroit Historical Society Bulletin Detroit Michigan Dictionary of American Biography Dr. Howe Dresden Ontario Canada Drew Earl Conrad Early History of Shrewsbury Edith C. Firth Edwin C. Giullet Edwin Larwill Elgin Elijah Leonard Ephraim Evans ETc. Excelsior Folklord of Lunenburg County Nova Scotia Folklore from Nova Scotia Folklore from the Half-Breeds in Nova Scotia Foreign Service Post Records Fort Erie Fort Malden Ontario Canada Foul Language Francis Waring Fred Landon Frederick Douglass Free African Americans Freedom's Journal French From Dixie to Canada: Romance and Reality of the Underground Railroad Fugitive African Americans Fugitive Slave Act Fugitive Slave Narratives Fugitive Slaves Fugitive Slaves in London Ontario Before 1860 Galt Ontario Canada Gara Gargoyles and Gentlemen: A History of St. Paul's Cathedral London Ontario Garrison Liberator George Brown Goodbye to Uncle Tom Gordon Brown Gordon Sellar Grand Rapids Michigan Halifax Nova Scotia Hamilton Canadian Illustrated News Hamilton Ontario Canada Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman Memorial Home Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People Harvard University Harvard University Houghton Library Harvard University Houghton Library Siebert Papers Haviland Helen Creighton Henry Bibb Henry Clay Henson Herbert Aptheker Hiram Wilson Historical Statistics of Canada Homer Uri Johnson Hungary Huron Institute Huron Institute Papers and Records Illinois Immigration Indiana Indianapolis Indiana Irish Settlers Isaac Rice Isabella Brown Henning Israel Campbell J.C. Furnas J.M.S. Careless J.T. Briggs J.W. Keith J.W. Loguen Jamaica James Egert Allen James G. Birney James Silk Buckingham Jane H. Pease Jermain W. Loguen Jerry Rescue John Atkins John Atkinson John Browne Russwurm John Nettleton John P. Jewett John Roaf John Scoble Journal of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada Journal of the House of Assembly of Upper Canada Inspector's Reports Appendixes Journal of the International Folk Music Council Journal of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Journals of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada Junius K.A.H. Buckley Kenneth M. Stampp Kentiana Kentucky Kingston Ontario Canada Kingston Penitentiary Lake Erie Lake Ontario Larry Gara Larwill Election Campaign Laura Haviland Letters Letters Largely Personal and Private Levi Coffin: The Friend of the Slave Lewis Clarke Lewiston New York Lexington Kentucky Life and Times of Frederick Douglass Liquor Law Loguen London and Middlesex Historical Society London England London Free Press London Ontario Canada London Times Long Point Lucretia Coffin Mott Lunenburg County Nova Scotia M.A. Garland M.C. Urquhart Maritime Provinces Martha Coffin Wright Martin Duberman Methodist Church Mid-America Mildred E. Danforth Missionary Groups Mitchell Montreal Gazette Montreal Star Moses Roper Narrative Narrative of the Sufferings of Lewis Clarke National Anti-Slavery Standard National Museum of Canada National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 117 Native Americans Negro in Literature Negro Order of Odd Fellows New Hampshire New Kentucky Ontario Canada New Orleans Commerical Bulletin New York New York City New York New York Tribune New York Weekly Tribune Niagara District Canada Niagara Falls Ontario Canada Niagara Suspension Bridge Niger Valley Exploring Party Norfolk Virginia North-Side View of Slavery Northern Border Cities Northern Prejudices Northern Racism Northwest Ohio Historical Quarterly Nova Scotia Canada O.K. Watson Oakville Ontario Canada Oakville Weekly Sun Oberlin Ohio Ogdensburg New York Ohio Ohio State Historical Society Ohio State Historical Society Siebert Papers Oil Springs Ontario Canada Ontario Historical Society Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records Orlo Miller Orwell Ohio Oswego New York Ottawa Canada Ottawa Citizen Ought American Slavery to be Perpetuated? Over Lake Erie to Freedom Owen Sound Comet Oxford Rhodes House Anti-Slavery Papers Paternalism Patsey Williams Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Pennsylvania History Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery Pennsylvania State Historical Society Peter Brown Petrolia Ontario Canada Philadelphia Pennsylvania Point Pelee Canada Port Ontario New York Prince Princeton New Jersey Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Propaganda Use of the Underground Railway Public Opinion Puce River Quakers Queen Victoria R.W. Fraser Record of Facts Reports of Penitentiary Inpectors Robert Sellar Robert Wilson Robin W. Winks Rochester New York Romantic Kent Roper Rowan Ontario Canada Royal Society of Canada Royal Society of Canada Proceedings and Transactions Samuel Cornish Samuel Ringgold Ward Sandusky Ohio Sarah Bradford Saratoga Springs New York Sarnia Observer School Records School Societies Separate Schools Shrewsbury Ontario Canada Sierra Leone Slave States Smith College Smith College Sophia Smith Collection Some Frontier and American Influences in Upper Canada Some Items of Negro-Canadian Folk-Lore Songs from Nova Scotia Sons of Uriah Sophia Smith Southern Slave Songs St. Catharines A to Z St. Catharines and Lincoln Historical Society St. Catharines Journal St. Catharines Ontario Canada St. Lawrence River St. Paul's Cathedral Stanley Ontario Canada Steamers Story of the Negro Stratford Beacon Syracuse New York Syracuse Public Library Syracuse University Syracuse University Gerrit Smith Miller Papers Systematic Prejudice Talbot Ontario Canada Tax Records Temperance Convention Tennessee Text. of Rev. Wm. Harrison's Sermon at Baptist Church Amherstburg The Anti-Slavery Vanguard: New Essays on the Abolitionists The Antislavery Argument The Barbarism of Slavery The Blacks in Canada: A History The Boston Committee in Canada The Friend of Man The Fugitive Slave Law and the Detroit River Frontier The Honorable Elijah Leonard: A Memoir The Journal of American Folk-Lore The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad The Negro in New York The Negro in the Abolitionist Movement The Negro Migration to Canada after the Passing of the Fugitive Slave Act The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Quarterly The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South The Provincial Freeman The Rev. J.W. Loguen as a Slave and as a Freeman The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery The Town of York 1815-1834: A Further Collection of Documents of Early Toronto The Underground Rail Road: A Record of Facts The Underground Railroad The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom The Underground Railroad: Legend or Reality? The Voice of the Fugitive The Works of Charles Sumner Things As They Are in America Thomas Henning Thomas Nye Toledo Ohio Toronto from Trading Post to Great City Toronto Globe Toronto Jail Toronto News of the Week Toronto Ontario Canada True Makers of Canada: The Narrative of Gordon Sellar who Emigrated to Canada in 1825 Tubman Uncle Tom's Cabin Underground Railroad Underground Railroad Superintendent Utica New York Vienna Austria Voice of the Fugitive Voting Records W.G. Grownlow W.H. Withrow W.J. Wintemberg W.M.G. Ward Washington Wesleyan Methodist Church West Indies Whiskey White Immigration Wilbur H. Siebert William Edward Farrison William H. Allison WIlliam H. Pease William Harrison William L. Marcy William M. Mitchell William Still William Still and the Underground Railroad William Wells Brown William Wilberforce Windsor Anti-Slavery Society Windsor Herad Windsor Herald Windsor Ontario Canada Yearnings for Freedom https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/259fc40b43c39f62dac13bd13bf2449b.pdf eb130ef1888eeb33af187b3ca4445726 PDF Text Text 5iHAj\CJI ; L nkc C&tt > > A? i i mas 7, jU'flh.n J’g/?/2TOWNSHIP OF DEERFIELD. 425 Academy and as a Lieutenant he served through the two years war with Mexico. From 1849 to I^55 was on duty *n Texas and on the new boundary line be­ tween Mexico and the United States, and was then transferred to the general staff in the Quartermaster’s Department. From 1857 to 1861 he was on duty during the Utah troubles and served in the Civil War until failing health caused him to be placed on the retired list by President Lincoln in 1863. For five years he was Vice-President of the Trader’s National Bank of Chicago. After the great fire in Chicago in 1871, he spent two years in traveling with his family and in 1880 settled in Highland Park where he now lives. He has been Mayor and Alderman of that city. He was a member of the Aztec Club which was formed in the City of Mexico by the officers of the army at the close of that war; also a member of the Loyal Legion, Sons of the American Revolution, and other so­ cieties. He was the author of “Turnley’s Narrative from Diaries, The Turnleys,” and several other books and many speeches, lectures and poems. He died » U in 1911. HENRY S. VAIL was born near Janesville, Wis., April 23, 1847, and was educated at Ripon College. He served in the Civil War in Company D, 38th Wisconsin Infantry, from April 19, 1864, to August, 1865. Pie came to Chicago in 1872, and entered the life insurance business. He is a well known actuary. He was married, March 3, 1880, to Miss Jennie C. McCulloch, after making his home in Highland Park in 1878. He was one of the organizers of the Law and Order League. LYMAN WILMOT was born in Colesville, N. Y., July 22, 1806, the son of Jesse and Hannah Wilmot. He was married March 17, 1831, in his native town to Miss Clarissa Dwight, who was born June 18, 1812. There were nine children: Virgil, born June 9, 1834; Adelia H., bom December 20, 1836, wife of P. Gutzler; Levi D., bom January 4, 1839; Lyman H., born April 25, 1841; Mary, born July 2, 1843; Roswell O., born July 12, 1847; Dwight Porter, born August 16, 1849; Ellen Eliza, born January 9, 1852; Warren Henry, bom October 6, 1855. Mr. Wilmot came to Lake County in 1840, locating in the Town of Deerfield. He died November 12, 1896. WARREN HENRY WILMOT was bom in Deerfield, Lake County, 111., October 6, 1855, the son of Lyman and Clarissa (Dwight) Wilmot. He received his education in the district schools and Northwestern College at Naperville, 111. He has been twice married: to Miss Minnie E. Vining in 1880, and ten years later to Miss Eva P. Vant. He has served as Township Treasurer, Trustee of Schools and as Supervisor of West Deerfield from 1904 to 1909. He was ap­ pointed Deputy U. S. Marshal for the Northern District of Illinois, October 22, 1906. He is a Protestant, votes the Republican ticket, and is a member of Wau­ kegan Council Y. of A., Nq. 157, (A. F. & A. M.), A. O. Fay Lodge, No. 676, Lake Camp, No. 178, M. W. A. 0 yisVJ-' ? / �..-:s fi iy m i! i 714 HISTORY OF LAKE COUNTY. ij t i •'! •5 ‘ < The Rev. G. L. Wrenn took the pastorate May i, 1872,and continued in this service eight years. The Rev. C. B. Allen, Jr., succeeded him in September, 1880, and continued until March, 1882. The Rev. H. C. Leland came in Novem­ ber, 1882. He was succeeded in May, 1884, by the Rev. E. G. Cheverson and he by the Rev. G. B. Simons in November, 1885, the Rev. J. W. Weddell in May, 1887, the Rev. L. A. Gould, June, 1894, the Rev. W. M. Vines in December, 1897, the Rev. Robert Morris Rabb in December, 1898, the Rev. James P. Whyte in May, 1900, the Rev. Edwin Seldon in January, 1902, the Rev. G. D. Rogers in December, 1903, the Rev. M. F. Sanborn in April, 1907, the Rev. E. LeRoy Dakin in May, 1908. His pastorate ended in January, 1911. A number 01 the ministers of this church have been student pastors from the Divinity School of the University of Chicago, and occasional service has been rendered by the professors of the school. The effort is now being made to find a permanent pastor. October 2, 1908, the first pastor, the Rev. G. L. Wrenn, who had continued to serve the church as a deacon, died. In his memory his children gave the beginning of a fund for a pipe organ, which was added to by Mrs. C. N. Kimball and other friends. On October 20, 1909, a fine memorial oragn was dedicated. The church has had four hundred members, but with the losses by death and the fluctuating membership of a suburban church, the present membership is 141, of whom 53 are non-resident.43 There are to-day five Baptist Churches in Lake County—those of Wau­ kegan, Highland Park, Barrington, Russell and Wauconda. THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES. As has been shown in the sketch of the Ivanhoe Congregational Church. The Presbyterians came to the county when it was still a part of McHenry County, and organized the Mechanics’ Grove Church in 1838. It was really a Union Church of Presbyterians and Congregationalists. In two years, however, the Presbyterians lost control and the church passed from them to become the Congregational Church, now of Ivanhoe. THE CHURCH OF HALF DAY. mi On the other hand a Congregational Church was organized at Half Day, November 20, 1841. The Rev. Elbridge G. Howe was the first pastor, but remained only for a brief period. The Rev. Joseph H. Payne came in January, 1842. The^first members were Mr. and Mrs. Joshua Pelton, Mr. and Mrs. 4SHighland Park Church Records; Gazette, May 23, 1896. i; i �n TEE PROTESTANT CEUROEES OF LAKE COTJNTY. 715 Joshua Pelton, Jr., Thomas Pelton, Sarah Hawkes, Levi Walker, Jane B. Walker, Lyman, Jesse and Clarissa Wilmot, Luther Farnham, Mary Cook, Silas and ^£Tm!a^tevens. A house otwoSmp was begun, in the village, in 1844. In the process of the years, although the date cannot now be ascertained, this church passed from the Congregational to the Presbyterian form of organization. The church was too feeble to maintain a pastor and it was served from Libertyville on alternate Sundays from 1869 to 1881. In that year the two churches were separated, and the Rev. Hannibal S. Stanley served the Half Day Church until 1884, driving over from Lake Forest. In 1885-86 the service was abandoned. In 1887 Prof. LeRoy F. Griffin came from Lake Forest. In 1889 and 1891 a supply came from McCormick Seminary. In 1890, 1892 and 1893 the church was vacant. The church disappears on the “General Assembly Annual Minutes” of 1894, and the organization, as such, was probably abandoned in that year. A new population had come in and a remnant of the old time worshippers have from time to time, ever since, fitfully resumed the service. Student “supply” from Lake Forest or McCormick Seminary has carried on this work, and the writer of this sketch conducted a service in the old historic church as late as 1908. But the place is now closed and silent.44 I i 5 1 1 : : a ! : THE CHURCH OF WAUKEGAN. The Presbyterian Church of Waukegan was organized November 11, 1859, by a colony from the Congregational Church of that town. In those days in the sparsely settled West, “Union” churches were frequently formed by the fraternization of Congregationalists and Presbyterians under a single organiza­ tion, and one pastor of either denomination. Forty-five Presbyterians, who had previously worshipped in the Congregational flock formed the new church. They were: William Ladd, Mary A. Ladd, Mrs. N. Cleaveland, Mrs. J. S. Frazer, H. A. Rew, Matilda A. Rew, John M. Hartnett, Margaret I. Hartnett, Dr. W. C. Barker, Sarah A. Barker, Mrs. McCrone, D. O. Dickinson, Mercy Dickinson, Leonard Dickinson, R. W. Clarkson, Susan Clarkson, W. C. New­ man, Letitia Newman, Thomas Hartzell, L. D. Hartzell, Prudence Ingalls, Hilda Ingalls, Sarah Barker, Elvira A. Baker, Mrs. C. W. Upton, Sarah Ferry, Mrs. John Cloes, Sophia Bacon, Matilda Dorcey, Sarah Barker, Emily C. Poutt, Sarah Hinckley, Jane Belshaw, Margaret McKay, Mary Douglass, Lydia Thomp­ son, Julia S. Geer, C. Ii. Millen, Mrs. Ann Millen, Mary A. Millen, H. H. Hawks, Sarah Hawks, Phoebe Landon, Susan A.-Look and Amanda Deacon. From other churches came J. W. Kelly, Mary J. Kelly, Horace Hurlburt, Eliza­ beth Hurlburt and Eliza Bates. The Rev. George L. Little took charge of this ;• i 44 Past and Present, 315; Minutes of Assembly, anno cit. !!: ! n. 1 ; t. J �TOWNSHIP OF DEERFIELD. By A. W. Fletcher. !: 1 ij A majority of four votes gave the name Deerfield instead of Erin to this township, there being seventeen votes for the former and thirteen for the latter, as expressed at a public meeting called for the purpose at the house of Michael Meehan, and the name Deerfield was given to the township by the commissioners. It is not clear as to who the first settler in this section was. It is claimed and disputed, that Jacob Caldwell and sons settled here in the spring of 1836, near the town of Deerfield. On the other hand it is asserted that Horace Lamb was the first settler, building a house for himself at least a year prior to the first date. We quote from Haines’ History: "When we take into account the fact that the Indians remained in possession of the lands lying in Lake County until 1836, and that occupa­ tion by the settlers was not permitted before that time, except by consent of the Indians, we can not expect to find settlers attempting to occupy the land much before that year. It is well understood that Capt. Daniel Wright was the only settler in what is now Lake County in 1834, except perhaps, Amos Flint, who is claimed to have settled on Fox River the latter part of this year. In 1835, ^e time in which the Indians were to leave the country being near at hand, which they seemed to realize, they became more indifferent as to the en­ croachment of the whites, whereby during this year some progress was made by settlers. It is possible that settlers may have entered the town of Deerfield in j835, but it is certainly not probable that any came before that time.” Among the early settlers may be mentioned Jacob Caldwell and five sons, Horace Lamb, John Mathews, Jesse Wilmot, Lyman Wilmot, B. Marks, R. Dygert, John Cochran, Michael Meehan, Magnus Tait, Anthony Sullivan, John King and Francis McGovern. The first school in Deerfield was taught by Rosilla Caldwell in 1848, and the first school house was built near the county line on Section 33. In the early forties a town site was laid out east of Highwood called St. Johns, but owing to litigation concerning title to the land, it was abandoned and in 1850, Jacob C. Bloom, Andrew Steele and others laid out a town site just south of St. Johns, called Port Clinton, and a postoffice was established here the same year. After the Chicago Parallel Railway (now the Chicago and Northwestern 416 'r .: �m i; ii : / ' 5 s ' 1 . i i ii • ii i 730 HISTORY OF LAKE COUNTY. feasibility of building a new church which should meet the requirements of the Church and Sabbath School, and it was finally decided that a new church must be built and should cost not less than $65,000.00, and that work should be commenced early in the spring of 1910. A Building Committee was appoint­ ed and authorized to secure plans and specifications and this has been done, and ground is to be broken very soon, and it is to be hoped that the new building will supply all the needs of the society for many years to come. The writer of this article has been connected with this church for thirtythree years and has seen it pass through seasons of depression and rejoicing and has come to love the old building and will be sorry to see it pass away, but all things must pass away and old things become new. Many and many are the pleasant hours that have been spent in the old church with friends that have passed away and many tender memories come back while sitting in the church and looking at familiar places and thinking of those who have gone, never to return. There are two of the charter members still in the church, Miss Sarah Patchen, who still continues to be an active worker, and Mrs. Lucy C. T. Allen, who has passed her 91st birthday, and can still remember the time when the church was organized and can remember the various persons who took part therein. Her son’s wife was the first person to join the church by profession and her granddaughter was the first person to be baptized. When the new church is completed the writer will rejoice with the rest of the congregation, but with regard to the old church his feelings and sentiments are expressed by the old hymn which has been often sung in the old church and doubtless will be in the new: “I love Thy church, O God! Her walls before Thee stand, Dear as the apple of Thine eye, And graven on Thy hand.” Since Mr. Godrich wrote the preceding narrative Mr. Goodson succeeded in the church by the Rev. Roy Calvin Dodson, who took up in the fall of 1910. Mr. Dodson came from Bloomington, Illinois, and offered the Highland Park pulpit in 1908, but could not then be drawn Bloomington church. has been the work had been from the THE DEERFIELD CHURCH. The Presbyterian Church at Deerfield Corners was organized in May, 1876, by the Rev. E. S. Hurd, D.D. The first members were Lyman and Clarissa Wilmot, Lyman Wilmot, Jr., Philip and Adelia Gutzler, Louis and Caroline Todd, 'MrsTLizzie Hall and Mrs. Mary S. Muhlke. The church edifice was built the same year. Dr. Hurd continued only for a year and for a number of years the church was "supplied” from Chicago or Lake Forest by Students. The “Min- . �m ' ill! ! A1 I 3* L I I . ii l! 38 Ii; i ,i ( It ji !! | . I i !: : I !l 1 ■ I Hi a !; !iI Ia ij Ii! ■? :!i! ; II •s ! ! ! ■f ii ,11 a i.< i ii I?1: 1? 4:ji 1I j :'111i! 3 f) :• :*l ,! <• ■! iS ;• i ; . I ■ !:i ?! U | li i !h? 1 . 'Ji ■ HISTORY OF LAKE COUNTY. on the Green Bay Road where the Atteridge home now is, Michael Maguire, who was Coroner in 1837-39, and Comity Commissioner in 1846-49, just north of him, James Cole and his four sons just south of Swanton, Michael Dulanty at the south end of the town on the same road In Deerfield Township Michael Meehan was the only settler in 1835. He made the beginnings of “Meehan’s Settlement” in Section 18. He was soon followed by Jacob Caldwell at Deerfield Corners, with his five sons—Madison Philemon, Caleb, Hiram and Edwin; also by Plorace Lamb, a mile south of Caldwell’s, John Mathews, Lyman Wilmot at Deerfield Corners, Benjamin Marks up m the northeast corner, Robert Daggett in the southeast corner, where he lies buried in the little cemetery beside the new Golf Station at Braeside; John Cochran, Magnus Tait, Anthony Sullivan, Francis McGovern on 22, John Mc­ Govern on 25, John King a half mile west of Fort Sheridan; Michael Yore and James Fagan on 7; Michael Vaugh n on 18; James Mooney on 27. 3 1 { ii 1 IN THE FOX VALLEY. In Ela Township in 1835 were George Ela, who went to the Legislature m 1846, on Section 33; Abraham Vanderwerker was on Section 34 • A. Russell gave name to Russell’s Grove on Section 10. Other early settlers were John Robertson iu -Section n •„ south of Lake Zurich, S. A. Shepard on 28, John E. Ueill on 34, George Cook, Leonard Loomis, Richard Archer on 2,5. Erastus Houghton built in .1836 the Yankee Tavern at ... u cross roads in Section 3. Waher M°rse, m 1835, settled at the later Gilmer, where he died September 26 i88a His brothers, Abiel, Henry and Martin settled near him. Martin tlr°'kTy CT a h‘tle later to Section 29. Lake Zurich and Ela were on the fraveIIedgrWhyn°w g° *° McHenry’ and the thither was already la rLf % Hurntlngt°n Came t0 Section 4 in l84a and died there October St If ill! 7 Tr £ I ' 3 *4I: ”6.ref he bu,’lt a saw Seth PainC b°Ught a Claira on the south and C3me WitH WS Wife’ Frances- t0 live on in in 1843. Thomas Haggerty was on Section 4; Noah Webster, unknown to fame, was on Section 31. In Fremont Township in 1835 were Daniel Marsh at "Marsh’s Settlement” l6’.south °f Fremont Center; Paschal P. Houghton on Section 30; W.ll.am Fenwick at the south end of Diamond Lake; Charles Fletcher on Sec­ tion 32. Fletcher, who was born in 1806 in Woodstock, Vermont, and died in Fremont, February 16, 1882, walked from Buffalo to Lake County. I.. In December, 1839, he was married to his neighbor, Elizabeth F. Houghton, Later comers were Uz Hendee on Section 1; A. Marble on 5; Hurlbut Swan on 11; Thomas H Payne on 7; Samuel L. Wood on 8; John G. Ragan who came in August, 1836, and was County Commissioner in 1844-46, on 34- Nelson and I;t ii � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lyman Wilmot House Description An account of the resource This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deerfield Public Library Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Public Library Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A History of Lake County Illinois Description An account of the resource Photocopy of pages from A History of Lake County Illinois by John J. Halsey related to Deerfield and to Lyman Wilmot. Includes highlighting and handwritten notes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Halsey, John J. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1912 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013.021 A History of Lake County Illinois A.W. Fletcher Adelia H. Wilmot Gutzler AF and AM Amos Flint Andrew Steele Anthony Sullivan Benjamin Marks Caroline Todd Chicago and Northwestern Train Chicago Illinois Chicago Parallel Railway Clarissa Dwight Wilmot Colesville New York Daniel Wright Deerfield Corners Deerfield Illinois Deerfield School District #109 Board of Trustees Deerfield Township Deerfield Township Commissioners Deerfield Township Treasurer Deputy United States Marshall Dwight Porter Wilmot E.S. Hurd Edwin Cadwell Elbridge G. Howe Ellen Eliza Wilmot Kittell Eva K. Vant Wilmot First Presbyterian Church Fort Sheridan Illinois Fox River Francis McGovern General Assembly Annual Minutes Haine's History Half Day Congregational Church Half Day Illinois Hannah Bunnel Wilmot Hannibal S. Stanley Highwood Illinois Hiram Cadwell Horace Lamb Jacob C. Bloom Jacob Cadwell James Cole James Fagan James Mooney Jane B. Walker Jesse Wilmot John Cochran John J. Halsey John King John Mathews John McGovern Joseph H. Payne Joshua Pelton Joshua Pelton Jr. Lake County Commissioners Lake County Coroner Lake County Illinois Lake Forest Illinois LeRoy F. Griffin Levi Davis Wilmot Levi Walker Libertyville Illinois Lizzie Hall Louis Todd Luther Farnham Lyman H. Wilmot Lyman Wilmot Madison Cadwell Magnus Tait Mary Cook Mary S. Muhlke Mary Wilmot Bennett Masonic Order A O Fay Lodge No. 676 McCormick Seminary Michael Maguire Michael Meehan Michael Vaughn Michael Yore Minnie E. Vining Wilmot Mrs. Joshua Pelton Mrs. Joshua Pelton Jr. Naperville Illinois Native Americans Northwestern College Philemon Cadwell Philip Gutzler Port Clinton Illinois Port Clinton Post Office Presbyterianism Protestantism R. Dygert Republican Party Rosilla Caldwell Roswell O. Wilmot Sarah Hawkes Selina Stevens Silas Stevens St. Johns Illinois Thomas Pelton United States Marshall United States Marshall Service Northern Illinois District Virgil Wilmot Warren Henry Wilmot West Deerfield Township Supervisor Y of A Waukegan Council https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/fa6611ce88e888c95d6a02cad895d605.pdf dfa96941005aefabca0fbdd901ab4c35 PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Deerfield Integration Case Records Subject The topic of the resource American Civil Rights Movement Deerfield, Illinois Integration in the North Racial Integration Racial Segregation Description An account of the resource The records related to the Deerfield Integration Case of 1959 include books, DVDs, a VHS tape, newspaper clippings, correspondence, and meeting minutes. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Bulk Dates 1959-1968 Date Range 1955-2018 Relation A related resource Bob Gand Papers Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0001 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Legacy of Leadership Description An account of the resource Newspaper Article Copy Highlighter Marks Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Frey, Mary Cameron Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Chicago Sun-Times Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 01/19/2000 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0001.031.021 1967 Detroit Race Riots Abbott Laboratories African American Summit African American Summit Steering Committee American Airlines Bank One Bobby Seale Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago Central Africa Chicago Illinois Chicago Public Schools Chicago Seven Chicago Sun-Times Chicago West Side Civil Rights Act of 1964 Civil Rights Organizations Connie Payton Copy Corn Products Danny Glover Deerfield Integration Deloris Sims Democratic National Committee Detroit Michigan Dona Scott Eleanor Josaitis Field Museum of Natural History Focus: HOPE Franklin McMahon Gordon Johnson Human Rights Human Rights Organizations Jane Addams Jane Addams Hull House Jane Addams Hull House Association Legacy Bank Lisa Rowe Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. Day Mary Cameron Frey Michero Washington Million Man March Minority Economic Resources Corporation Motorola Newspaper Article North Vietnam Paul Adams Philip Jackson Providence-St. Mel Private School Providence-St. Mel Private School Principal Racial Discrimination Racial Injustice Rainbow PUSH Roberta Gutman Sam Scott South Africa United States Senate Vietnam Walter Payton Willie Barrow https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/5a64c0c0186b21a2e78021c55bceb747.pdf 88153bebd62221e417bfb04ab5059293 PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Bob Gand Papers Description An account of the resource The records related to Bob Gand’s involvement with the Deerfield Citizens for Human Rights organization and the creation of the Deerfield Human Relations Commission. Digital Only Collection Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gand, Robert C. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Integration Case Records Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1961-1963 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Deerfield Citizens for Human Rights Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Deerfield Public Library Relation A related resource Deerfield Integration Case records Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0006 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Letter to the Friends of the Deerfield Citizens for Human Rights Description An account of the resource Handwritten date Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Robert C. Gand Papers Deerfield Citizens for Human Rights Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10/31/1963 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0006.044 Adrien L. Ringuette Alice Almasy Anthony G. Sabato Arthur Shay Bernard Katz Civil Rights Conference on Race and Religion David H. Rosen Deerfield Citizens for Human Rights Deerfield Human Relations Commission Deerfield Village Board of Trustees Edgar D. Crilly Gerald M. Flegel Harry Sholl Integration John C. Kimball John E. Coons Joseph B. Cleary Joseph T. Houlihan Margaret Sandberg Mariellen C. Sabato Matt Ahmann Mildred O. Springer Millie Berliant Mrs. Lewis B. Walton Jr. Mrs. Robert F. Broege Mrs. Russell R. Bletzer Mrs. William M. Fair North Shore Human Relations Committee Paul V. Berggren Richard A. McCurdy Robert C. Gand Robert H. Mazur Roger McGuire Roger W. Carlson Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Theodor P. Repsholdt William H. Reilly https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/b141dacc27aea984ad094667aaf1561f.pdf 53087b35ed83ef9a0825ba7fa21a7822 PDF Text Text �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Deerfield Integration Case Records Subject The topic of the resource American Civil Rights Movement Deerfield, Illinois Integration in the North Racial Integration Racial Segregation Description An account of the resource The records related to the Deerfield Integration Case of 1959 include books, DVDs, a VHS tape, newspaper clippings, correspondence, and meeting minutes. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Bulk Dates 1959-1968 Date Range 1955-2018 Relation A related resource Bob Gand Papers Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0001 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Moment in History: 40 Years Ago, Integration Battle Rocked Deerfield Description An account of the resource Newspaper Article Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alberts, Marc Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Review Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10/21/1999 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Dicker, Rob Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0001.031.016 1999 Deerfield Integration Exhibition Adrien L. Ringuette African Americans Artist Bernard Scotch But Not Next Door Charles J. Caruso Civil Rights Civil Rights Movements Cross Burning David H. Rosen Deerfield American Legion Hall Deerfield Citizens for Human Rights Deerfield Grammar School Deerfield High School Deerfield High School Principals Deerfield Integration Deerfield Integration Lawsuits Deerfield Park District Deerfield Park District Board of Directors Deerfield Public Library Deerfield Review Deerfield School District #110 Deerfield School District #110 Superintendent Deerfield Village Board of Trustees Deerfield Village Meetings Floral Park Model Homes Franklin McMahon Harold C. Lewis Highland Park High School Highland Park Illinois Highland Park School District Highland Park School District Superintendent Illinois Illinois House of Representatives Integrated Neighborhoods and Developments Integration Poll Jack A. Hicks Jack D. Parker James C. Mitchell Ku Klux Klan Lake Forest Illinois Land Condemnation Lauren Beth Gash Marc Alberts Mitchell Park New Jersey Newspaper Article North Shore Residents Association Overt Racism Park Referendum Progress Development Corporation Reporter Riverwoods Illinois St. Gregory Episcopal Church Theodor P. Repsholdt https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/f7ff4889022dab162da1c3c7f36ef23d.pdf c5d285d3f189c1ad3a0e98ccd7485b4a PDF Text Text 496 Appendix SVarlier’ °r SUbSCqUent data: Migration reports. These data also suffer from imprecise definitions, for black immigration to Canada was remrlo °ften m te™S °f arrivaIs £rom 1116 United States and via ocean port^ These two categories are not genuinely helpful, for numerous AmeriMnn^°eS "ndoubtedly entered through the ports of Halifax, Saint John, Montreal, and Vancouver, just as West Indians and Africans may have rossed into Canada from the American border rather than entering by sea. Other data do refer to West Indians as distinct from Negroes, the latter word apparently being reserved for Americans; but in 1926 the ethnic totals were dropped, as was the West Indian designation, temporarily. And immigration reports could be contradictory: although the 1922 report showed that no Negroes had entered Canada the previous year, this was corrected in the report of 1923.27 A comparison of census returns, birthrate ^ estimates, and immigration reports for the period 1911 to 1951 shows that one body of data was in ? C°nfisiderable numbcr of Negroes “passed over” each decade m o white classifications—not primarily through intermarriage, since the intermarriage rate was low, but presumably through electing to consider Aemselves white. This conclusion would also help to account for the r" flT8h0Ut the Peri0d fr0m 0ntario other provinces ( ept Nova Scotia), and for the movement out of Nova Scotia into Negro communities^ * ^ * °ntari° and Nova Scotia *e were „ more reac% recognizable, and if one had made the decision to “ step. By 1961 help to explain the sharp increase in the reported Negro population, for “sen ISS 7 h3Ve Ch0Se“ t0 “paSS” “ay now h™5 oh°sen to tinn i^ i ba faSe-In the previous decades a modestly advancing immigracrease 7 ^ ^ W£St Indies’ aIso contributed measurably to the inIf neither the estimates of interested observers nor the reports of disinterested statisticians are to be accepted for this study one may yet conelude that the Negro, although never numerous, has on the whole been more numerous than Canadians have thought. His influence in Canadian Even °f ?g dUration and’ at times> of marked importance. Even more, one may demonstrate that the Canadian experience has been fte SfeCCaCnad0r wTfl“t the faction between the black, , . fCad,’. and their shared environment has revealed much of general interest and importance about Canadian ethnic and racial attitudes. (oLTm9U27yeZVf te Dertment °f ******** ond Colonization . . . l sstrssasr’ -d '* A Note on Sources This book arises largely from manuscript materials. That is true of____ most books by most historians, and usually the fact would not be worthy of special comment. Negro, or Black, history manuscript materials present unusual problems, however. Manuscripts left by Negroes are fewer in number, more difficult to find, and less self-consciously revealing, than manuscripts arising from more traditional sources. The reasons for this comparative dearth are obvious enough, even though until recently few historians seem to have remarked upon the ways in which an anti- or at least non-Negro bias might be reflected in many aspects of North Ameri­ can social history. In historiography, as in chess, the white is always the first to move—or has been until recently. As slaves, blacks often were illiterate; even when free, they were the least likely of all newcomers to North America to leave behind a written record. They had left no one in Africa to whom they would write of their new experiences; they were not organized in the New World in ways con­ ducive to communication on paper; and they often lacked the skills re­ quired to prepare the historian’s cherished manuscript, to be produced in time in some neatly catalogued archive. They also were highly itinerant, and frequently not in control of their own movements, so that the little they had by way of a historical record was swept aside, left behind, or burned to keep a body warm during the winter. Furthermore, they were not organized institutionally, so that until the mid-nineteenth century there were very few religious groups, schools, mutual aid societies, fraternal or­ ganizations, or other self-venerating institutions to preserve a collective record. Accordingly, Negro records are few, scattered, and require much time and effort to find, assess, and relate. The assessment of those records that have survived poses another prob­ lem. One need not recite here the many arguments about the special nature of Black history, for a flood of monographs has appeared in recent years to attest to the angry shoals upon which anyone who casts himself adrift from traditional historiography may run aground. Obviously, much of the documentation relating to the Negro in North America comes from sources which are “white”; thus we often must view black activities and responses —even Negro thought—through sources which, while contemporary, are at one remove from our subject matter. To note that one must also view 497 �ancient Greek thought through modern eyes is not to vitiate the conclusion that by its nature much white-authored history will be biased history. It does not follow, however, that all white observers have got their sums wrong. In any event, the historian works with what he has, and while black observers are to be preferred in many instances, this is not invariably so; and even were it so, surely it is not beyond the empathy of man to compensate at least somewhat for the bias inherent in any observation that moves across ethnic, cultural, or religious chasms. Two superb books —David Brion Davis’s The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), and Winthrop Jordan’s White Over Black (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1969)—have been criticized by some scholars on the ground that they are less about what the Negro did than about what the Negro had visited upon him. If this is so, it does not challenge the validity of telling the latter story, and I cannot hope, in this more modest effort, to escape such criticisms. In any event, this book says something about both subjects. I have sought out black sources carefully, and feel that I have demonstrated that vast quantities of material do exist, if not always in the customary places. Such sources are not used in preference to white sources, as a substitute or supplement to them, nor in token integration, but as parallel sources of equal and different validity. As drafts of this work were revised, the documentation was substantially reduced. Anyone interested in additional references to a specific point in the text may consult the author’s original notes or one of the earlier drafts of the manuscript, now in the Schomburg Collection of the New York Public Library. The documentation is relatively full as presented here, however, and the following essay will deal with contemporary or original source materials only. The footnotes will lead the reader to the more im­ portant of the secondary works, as well as printed documents, which are not discussed here. Most of the books, pamphlets, and articles cited in the notes were con­ sulted at the British Museum, the Library of Congress, the Public Archives of Canada, or one of the Canadian provincial archives. All major collec­ tions of Negro Americana (as the term once had it) known to me were consulted. These include the five leading collections: the Schomburg, the James Weldon Johnson in the Yale University Library, and the holdings of Fisk, Hampton, and Howard universities. Lesser collections in the Bos­ ton Athenaeum, the Brookline (Mass.), Chicago, and Providence public libraries, the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, the Confederate Me­ morial Library in Richmond, Tuskegee Institute, Lincoln University, and the universities of Atlanta, California, and Vermont, were examined, as were special collections of antislavery pamphlets at Cornell University and ! Oberlin College. I also consulted over a hundred theses and dissertations. Those drawn upon are cited in full in the footnotes. For a basic list, one may consult Earle H. West, comp., A Bibliography of Doctoral Research on the Negro, 1933-1966 ([Ann Arbor, Mich.], 1969). The only partial bibliography on The Negro in Canada appeared as this work neared completion. Subtitled A Select List of Primary and Secondary Sources for the Study of Negro Community in Canada from the Earliest Times to the Present Days, and prepared by Sushil Kumar Jain, it is avail­ able from the University of Saskatchewan library (Regina, 1967). The list is highly selective and uncritical. A Bibliography of Antislavery in America, prepared by Dwight Lowell Dumond (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1961), is the most important guide to antislavery literature and other printed sources. It does not entirely replace two earlier, and excellent finding aids: W. E. Burghardt DuBois, A Select Bibliography of the American Negro (Atlanta, Ga., 1905), the only one of several such bibliographies con­ sistently to include Canadian citations; and the references in Mary S. Locke, Anti-Slavery in America, from the Introduction of African Slaves to the Prohibition of the Slave Trade (1619-1808) (Boston, 1901). These and other bibliographies include a number of highly general histories of slavery which make passing reference to Canada—histories not cited in the pres­ ent volume. (A representative example is Frank Hoyt Wood, Vrsprung und Entwicklung der Sklaverei [Leipzig, Germ., 1900], which discusses Canada on pages 7 to 16.) Anyone wishing to compile a definitive bibli­ ography on Canadian Negroes must therefore consult the standard finding aids as well as the raw notes to the present study, for not all relevant secondary titles are incorporated in the printed footnotes of this book. Official Papers Official papers tend to survive, private papers tend not to. Most official papers, at least until recently, will tell far more of the Negro as a person acted upon rather than as actor. For these reasons, the papers of official bodies—and especially of governments—were of relatively less use in this study than in most books which attempt to examine some facet of the Canadian-American relationship. Nonetheless, the official,, papers were indispensable, especially for a record of the Black Pioneers, the migration to Sierra Leone, the Maroons, and the Refugees. The Public Archives of Canada, a uniquely well-run and organized depository, contains many basic collections of importance. Among these are the Canadian “G” series, consisting of dispatches and ancillary records relating to the office of the governor-general. Of this record group’s twenty-three numbered subseries, the most valuable were Gl, Despatches from the Colonial Office, G12, Letter Books of Despatches to the Colonial �500 A Note on Sources Office, and G20, Civil Secretary’s Correspondence. The “C” series, British Military Records, provided much information, especially on the War of 1812 and the rebellion of 1837. Particularly fruitful were Cl, C35, C801, and Cl 049. The Minutes of the Executive Council, Upper Canada Land Petitions, State Papers of Upper Canada, transcripts of Letters Patent, transcripts of Treasury letters to the Naval and Military Departments for 1815-21, the raw censuses of Canada, the internal correspondence for Quebec, and several miscellaneous volumes of petitions, also added pieces to the mosaic. The Public Archives Record Centre, a storage depot for the archives, contained the important General Headquarters Papers re­ lating to World War I. The Public Archives of Nova Scotia, in Halifax, provide equally im­ portant data. Beginning with the voluminous Akins Collection (to which belong most PANS volumes bearing a number in the footnotes), succes­ sive archivists have drawn together an exceptional range of material. Among the official papers are volumes of unpassed bills, the letter books of the surveyor-general for 1784 to 1824, letters of the lieutenant governor to the Colonial Office, accounts on the final settlement of the Jamaican Maroons in Nova Scotia, a variety of petitions, deeds, and bills of sale, a loose collection of land papers, a bound series of Crown Land Papers, raw census returns, Council Minutes, the Minute Books of Proceedings of the Port Roseway Associates, official documents on Old Township and Loyalist settlements, French documents relating to Acadia, and a number of miscellaneous volumes (on occasion with incorrect binder’s titles, as when a volume labeled 1815-18 is found to contain a letter for 1836). The line between official and unofficial papers is a thin one, of course, and often impossible to draw. Several of the collections used in the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John were of this kind. They include the or­ der books of the York County Militia, the records of the Provincial Chas­ seurs, extracts from King’s County wills, miscellaneous records of the York County registry office, the record book of the Pennfield settlement, and a variety of marriage and death certificates. A wide range of papers pertaining to Crown lands in Ontario, together with the papers of the Edu­ cation Department (often referred to as the Ryerson Papers) of Canada West, are among the most valuable sources in the Ontario Provincial Archives in Toronto. Deeds, petitions, location tickets, and the papers of the Toronto City Council for the 1840s (supplemented by minutes of town meetings held by the Toronto Public Library), also proved useful. The History Branch of Ontario’s Department of Lands and Forests holds a substantial number of survey records that were relevant. In Windsor, the registry office provided lists of property holders, plans for lots, and lists of burials which helped plot the patterns of black settlement in Essex County. To the West, the Archives of Saskatchewan and those of British Co- A Note on Sources 507 lumbia proved especially useful. At the former’s Saskatoon branch, a wide range of homestead records have been microfilmed, while the Regina branch hdds films of the provincial Department of Education’s district files. The British Columbia archives, in Victoria, also hold many official land records, as well as the correspondence of the Commissioner of Lands and Works. The Land Titles Office, in Edmonton, Alberta, and the pro­ vincial Department of Lands and Forests, also in Edmonton, provided maps, tax records, and certificates of title. official records were of great value, since the majority of XT American . Canada arrived via the United States. The National Archives in Washington holds such diverse collections as the papers of the Con­ tinental Congress, the George Washington papers, the Interior Depart­ ment’s records on the slave trade and Negro colonization, the Harper’s Ferry Select Committee files, the records of the Labor and Transportation Committee for Congested Production Areas (1943-45), the State De­ partment’s Decimal Files for the first four decades of the present century, and dispatches from twenty-one American consulates in Canada, as well as from American consuls in Nassau, Bahamas; Kingston, Jamaica; and Aux Cayes, Haiti. The most important repositories of official and public papers proved to be in Britain, however. The Public Record Office is an overburdened ever-ncher storehouse for the colonial, imperial, or diplomatic historian’ and many of its volumes were central to this study. These include eighteen CO series: 2, 23, 42, 44, 45, 60, 188, 217, 218, 219, 220, 267, 270, 296, 305, 398, 410, and 537; together with FO series 5, 35, 115, and 414. Each of these series may run to hundreds of volumes, as in C042 which consists of over 600 volumes, 131 of which proved to contain relevant material. H045, confidential extradition prints, the Confidential Minute Papers on The Gambia, Admiralty series 1, WO series 1 and 61 (the latter the Jeffery Amherst Papers), the Chatham Papers, and the Head­ quarters Papers of the British Army in America also were of use. The Public Archives of Canada holds microfilms of the CO series, and PANS holds copies of C0188 and 217-20, although for maximum effectiveness one must still consult the originals. To these official documents should be added Additional Manuscripts 15,485 in the British Museum, on exports and imports of North America, 1768-69. Private Papers In the end, however, private papers proved to be of the greatest utility. On subjects of race personal statements are likely to be franker, more frequent, and ultimately more unconsciously revealing than the cautious records of governments can be. If one includes among private papers those �502 A Note on Sources of unofficial corporate bodies, such as the Society for the Propagation of the. Gospel, of the many antislavery societies in Britain, Canada, and the United States, and of self-help societies, one inevitably will find a more open, accurate, and fuller expression of opinion and reflection of events than any official records might provide. Unfortunately, the number of col­ lections consulted makes a full critical discussion here impractical. In the United States, all paths lead to the Library of Congress. There I drew upon single volumes of papers relating to Sir Guy Carleton and Sir William Johnson; two boxes and sixteen volumes of materials (the Edward Vernon and Charles Wager collection) on the slave trade prior to 1773; Arthur Hamer’s manuscript bibliography on the trade, compiled at Magdalen College in 1799; collections of papers relating to James Gillispie Birney, John Brown, Edward Everett, Augustus John Foster, Hugh Gaine, Joshua Giddings, Marcus Gunn, Mrs. Basil Hall, Julia Ward Howe, Samuel Gridley Howe, John Mitchell, Wendell Phillips, F. W. Pickens and M. L. Bondam, James Redpath, Franklin B. Sanborn, Wil­ liam H. Seward, John Sherman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, B. F. Stevens, Mary Church Terrell, Booker T. Washington, Theodore Dwight Weld’ Walter White, Elizur Wright, Frances Wright, the Western Anti-Slavery Society for 1845-57, and the Edith Rossiter Bevan Autograph Col­ lection. Most valuable of all was the Carter G. Woodson Collection of Negro Papers, the minutes of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and papers of Benjamin, Lewis, and Arthur Tappan. (Several of the letters from Thomas Clarkson and John Scoble to the Tappans have been re­ printed in Anne Heloise Abel and Frank J. Klingberg, eds., “The Tappan Papers,” JNH, 7 [1927], 128-329, 389-554 and simultaneously in their A Side Light on Anglo-American Relations, 1839-1858 [Washington].) Boston is the chief center for research on abolitionism. In the Massa­ chusetts Historical Society one may consult the papers of John A. Andrew, John Brown, George Ellis, Edward Everett, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Amos A. Lawrence, Edmund Quincy, and Amasa Walker-—all drawn upon chiefly for unravelling the story of Josiah Henson—as well as the Francis Parkman Papers. The Boston Public Library holds the papers of William Lloyd Garrison, the original manuscript of Josiah Henson’s nar­ rative as written by Samual A. Eliot, and Lydia Maria Child, Samuel May, Jr., Amos A. Phelps, and Maria Weston Papers. Across the river in Cam­ bridge, at Harvard’s Houghton Library, one may contest wills against the awkwardly organized Charles Sumner Papers, which include correspon­ dence with Clarkson, Eliot, Ellis, Scoble, and Walker, as well as George Thompson and Hiram Wilson. The Ralph Waldo Emerson and William H. Siebcrt Collections, the latter consisting of forty-five volumes of clip­ pings and notes (three on Canada), and the Houghton theatre collection, A Note on Sources 503 „W;* Srarv6 On^T P!?ybilIS’ add t0 1116 att^tions of this most ele- ton. . Garrison II collections in the Smith College Library in Northamp- some Thomas: r,n°JeSS riCh' The NeW-York H^al Society provided some Thomas Clarkson papers and an excellent copy of John Clarkson’s John’Taylor' Thomas Sharp’ Gerri‘ Smith! and n Taylor, Thomas Nyes journal, a single Charles Stuart letter in the ranaHS!nP !i °f ^eVerend Franc>s Hawks. a miscellaneous collection on Canada and settlement, correspondence on the slave trade and da (olhSeFreCd0rdSjc0nthe, S°Ciety f°r Pr°moting Manumission of Slaves’ i?hai w d oD0UgaSS papers were consulted in the Douglass Me jssi-sirs.rrr ris s°f™ f Samuel Ringgold Ward). At Columbia Unive^y one S the oa^s eorge Plimpton, of Sydney Howard Gay (in fifty badly sorted boxes) e papers of the Toronto Emigration Office, the John Bartlet BreW ’ antes T. Shotwell and William J. Wilgus coileSo^alfwfth m« 14o tnianCe~a!1i osheu L' S' Alexander Gumby Collection of Negroiana 1910 untTl950 so “ °ffPpingS on Mack activities collected from n i at50, S° orSamzed that one may readily find materials cm Douglass Marcus Garvey, Jackie Robinson, and riteTsSSfThe H^ York Geographical Society library has manuscript maps which denote black settlements m the Maritime Provinces, and playbills and program s for Tom Shows are in the New York Library for the Perfor2g 1“ sity Ltory whe0reeam0VeS m°St t0 the 5y»«w Univera slDgular Private collection was mined. The Gerrit Brown Jr rIafPherS T"1 volumin°aa correspondence to Smith from John Brown, Jr Anthony Burns, Thomas Clarkson, James C. Fuller Thomas Henning, Benjamin Lundy, Samuel J. May, Jr., Joshua R. Giddings Isaac and^T-p” J°1^.IScoble> JosePh Sturge, George Thompson, Samuel Ward and Hiram Wilson, as well as subject matter volumes, as for exampie on J• WrLo!re,HNrbc 1116 SyraCUSe HiSt0riCal Society holds a Me on gun and the Syracuse Public Library has a useful collection f genealogical materials. In Rochester, the university preserves the large �504 A Note on Sources the Samud D' Porter hoIdin2s on facts snmf^ ° ^aiIroad- 111 Auburn one may examine a variety of artiCornell n Ca ‘aD’ m the Harriet Tubman Memorial Home- and at A Note on Sources 505 van SteinValshdenrCovedCti<?n’ aDd P3pCrS °£ Ulrich B- P™PS and Gertrude Society hold's th^e^t£££& w££*££S™ IthrTa\?e C°,le®e ^ aa extensive“rno^ The S^te Hi t S?c J' May antislavery pamphlet file proved of use. other of AmSl7^ °f Pennsylvania> in Philadelphia, is yet anlectL vi^/ superlative state archives. Here the Simon Grate Coljournal of ffif Spe;eral,mtoest“S items- William Still’s letter book, and the were Society Underground Railroad, John nrr,^F ^he.mmutes the Pennsylvania Abolition Society Robert VauxPJames bSi^^A^ S°me Redpath materia1^’ and th® British Navtdiw® ’ Amencan NeSro History Society, and -£<£?.£=.izzszxr** N'“by s"nh- the o™!l6fi0DS ^ m°re WideIy di^ibuted and I researched th em as Clements t -u V aros\ usually while on other business. The William L STof J UniV£rSity °f Michigan houses the large coUec-' Sarah orfr ^' ^ The°d°re DwiSht Weld, and Angelina and ed tfd hv n Abr°ut one-third of the most important manuscripts were Birney, 1837-1857 (2 vds^N111 ^ °f Iames GilUsPie Wilson, and Hemy Eftb a e includli p' SC0We’ StUart* StUrge> Walker, 55 “ “ brary has several diaries of Elihu Burri t hft make 7 ^^ materials of Harriet Beecher Stowe—in some sixt^lihrL^ ^ ^ f® h® GrMe'y Swe^nrighf 1°£ “ the Kansas State Historical Soctefv Thk f Eastman PaPers), and ||S£~SHSlsi .»£^"o=r„ “o£ s*ja,tsron M“- °*™* ss jS2s t";:* v^oV^S£mS^aVery-A^iti0n —p“ KreS Z ,"d m “st “ ■=* Acrrsss: ssr -d and I used a microfilm of the Wickett-WiswaU Collection of EhiahTo633’ joy Papers at Texas Technological College. The Office of the Chief Jr" Washillgton’ DC> made available within its Historical Highway 3 V3nety °f manuscriPt ffles <® the building of the Alaskan treasUrer’s Ietters> and ‘he r°WS ^ °D the early fugitive slave settle- Papers in Canada were also dispersed across the continent. Again, the most valuable collections were in the Public Archives of Canada There one ss X^rer:: HeJ holies ments in Canada West. P ’ At Yale, the James Weldon Johnson are Collection, in the Beinecke Li- orSJSSI, zz%v ,ue“re ;r "d i”'-1«»=«««* 8 0DSWUt,0n of Vancouver Island’s Confederate League. The Carl Galt i «”?S“ Afc"n,I“™ officials. The Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Papers were of great use on the French period, as were the �si note on sources extensive transcriptions from the Archives de la Marine (Serie B) and Archives des colonies (Serie B, C, E, F) in Paris, the general correspon­ dence of Intendant Giles Hocquart, Fonds Frangais from the Bibliotheque Nationale, and a variety of transcripts from the Archives Nationale. The papers of James Murray, a number of Carleton transcripts, the Ward Chipman, William King and William Dummer Powell papers, the diary of Alexander McNeilledge, the Reynolds Family papers, plans of the Elgin settlement with contemporary maps, and the journal of Mgr. J. O. Plessis were of substantial use. The PAC also holds microfilms of the annual re­ ports, occasional papers, and minute books of the Colonial and Continen­ tal Church Society, the originals of which are at McGill University, at the Methodist Missionary Society chambers in London, and in the British Museum With the exception of the last, it was the microfilm I used. George Julien s ‘ Coon” of Laurier is in the National Gallery of Art, also in Ot­ tawa. In Toronto, the Ontario Provincial Archives provided the papers of Wil­ liam Canniff, J. George Hodgins, Mrs. Edmund George O’Brien, James R Roaf, the Robinson and Russell families, John Graves Simcoe, Thomas Smith, D. E. Stevenson, Bishop John Strachan, and a typescript by John M. Elson. The University of Toronto added the John Carleton papers; while the Toronto Public Library, always pleasant and efficient, drew from its midden the diary of Elizabeth Russell, the papers of Peter Russell, Robert Baldwin, William Jarvis, and David William Smith, the HubbardAbbott Collection, the manuscript autobiography of Thomas H. Scott, Mrs. Amelia Harris’s scrapbooks, and a variety of broadsides, playbills' prospecti, and clippings. All save the Smith papers proved of immense value. The pamphlet and newspaper holdings of the Victoria University (Toronto) Archives were of great use. A Bengough sketch satirizing blacks hangs m the William Lyon Mackenzie House. Elsewhere in Ontario, the obvious centers of research were Windsor, London, and Hamilton. The first provides, in its public library, files on the AME and BME churches, on black activities in the area, and on Amherstburg’s churches and schools. Several private individuals made available to me family letters, genealogical charts, marginally annotated books, and maps while the Hiram Walker Historical Museum also possesses maps miscellaneous Negro papers, and lists of black settlers. Nearby, in the Amerstburg Public Library, the tiny Boyle Collection attested to the presence of the early missionaries, while the museum of the Fort Malden National Historical Park offered the account book of David McLaren Kemp, an undertaker who was racially conscious, the F. C. B. Fall and Farney papers, assessment rolls, Amherstburg deeds, and miscellaneous fugitive slave and genealogy files. 507 The second city, London, provides unpublished local histories in both S6 -!b lCJuar!! and at University of Western Ontario, while the Hamfiton Public Library holds a number of Negro-related scrapbooks and G. C. Porter s manuscript history of the area. McMaster University, in Hamilton, houses the Canadian Baptist Historical Association collection. This includes James W. Johanson’s manuscript history of the Amherst­ burg Association, 1841-61, the minute book of the Sandwich Baptist Church, and the minutes of the Western Regular Baptist Association. Local libraries in Ontario, the province to which the majority of fugitive slaves fled, cannot be ignored. The Barrie and Orillia public libraries the Suncoe County Surrogate Court Office (in Barrie), the Norfolk, Lennox and Addington, and Oxford historical societies, as well as those of Lundy’s Lane and Thunder Bay (the latter in Port Arthur), and the ChathamKent Museum in Chatham, all hold relevant manuscripts. The last also has books from William King’s library; and Uncle Tom’s Cabin Museum near Dresden, displays playbills and artifacts relating to Henson. The of­ fice of the Board of Education in Chatham, in the minutes of the Board of Public School Trustees, and the Grant African Methodist Episcopal Church in London, through its church records, helped fill in lacunae in the local story. The Maritime archives were of slightly less importance. The Public Archives of Nova Scotia holds individual files on several early settlers transcripts from the Carleton papers, the diaries of Simeon Perkins (now available in carefully edited form), a copy of the first volume of John Clarkson’s diary, an Etter family genealogy, several Ward Chipman papers and typescript local histories. Unfortunately, the papers of William s’ Fielding remain closed to researchers. Also in Halifax, the public library m its local history collection, and the provincial library, in its newspaper holdings, proved of great help. The Cambridge Maritime Military Library has compiled a file on William Hall, V.C. The libraries of Saint Francis Xavier University in Antigomsh and Acadia University in Wolfville the last incorporating the Maritime Baptist Historical Collection, also yielded scarce pamphlets and journals; and the Colchester Registry Office in Truro has a relevant registry book. The office of the Halifax ChronicleHerald holds clippings on the singer, Portia White. I am particularly grate­ ful to Marjory Whitelaw of Pictou, who loaned me seven reels of taped reminiscences of, and conversations with, Negroes living in Nova Scotia in the 1960s. In New Brunswick, the provincial museum in Saint John provided papers and files on the Eastman, Hazen, Mayes, Odell, Thompson, and etsel famihes, and some surviving Chipman papers, together with numerous scrapbooks. In Fredericton, the University of New Brunswick, �508 A Note on Sources the legislative library, and the Rectory office of Christ’s Church, hold local registers, wills, and minutes. The Saint John Public library has several files on local Negro activities. The Woodstock Public Library has a small col­ lection of petitions. The Charlottetown, P.E.I., Public Library offered typescript local histories which attest to early Negro arrivals. In Quebec, Negro-related private materials were less frequent than one would expect. The Chateau de Ramezay, in Montreal, has a manuscript record on slavery in New France, while the Archives du Palais de Justice attest to sales, births, marriages, baptisms, deaths, and burials. The Mc­ Cord Museum of McGill University, in the Porteous Manuscripts, and the McGill University Library in its local history materials, were of some value. The provincial archives in Quebec hold the manuscript second vol­ ume to Marcel Trudel’s study, wills and other actuarial records, and tran­ scripts of the Ordres du Roi. The Brome County Historical Society in Knowlton offers local manuscripts and files. The single most valuable col­ lection in the province, however, is one not generally open to the public: the records of the Canadian Labour Congress’s Joint Advisory Commit­ tee on Human Relations, originally kept at the Workman’s Circle Center in Montreal. Extensive and highly revealing, these records tell of annual trips into the Maritime Provinces, as well as within Quebec, to note and combat instances of overt discrimination. These, together with folders on discrimination in the Toronto office of the Human Rights Commission, provided the single greatest non-newspaper source of data on the 1950s and early 1960s. The collection includes mimeographed reports on activities, normally issued eleven times a year, files of local union news­ papers, newsletters of municipal employee groups, and carbons of correspondence with representatives in the field. In the end, relatively little of this material was incorporated into the present study since the decision was made to limit it largely to the years before 1960. Across western Canada private collections helped tell the story of Negro settlement, although interviews proved to be the most valuable source for the prairie and mountain provinces since most settlement was within the memory of living men. The Archives of British Columbia hold the reminiscences of John Sebastian Helmcken, the diaries and account books of Wellington D. Moses, the diary, correspondence, and record books of Edward Cridge, the diaries of Reverend Ebenezer Robson and of Augus­ tus F. Pemberton, the South Saanich Public School Visitor’s Journal, tran­ scripts relating to the Colonial Missionary Society, several questionnaires directed to early pioneers, and letters written by J. S. Matthews concerning early black settlers. The Vancouver City Archives, in the Vancouver Public Library, has other Matthews correspondence and local clipping files, and Victoria’s City Hall gave me documents signed by Mifflin Wistar A Note on Sources 509 Gibbs, which I will deposit with the Yale University Library. L_. The University of British Columbia and Victoria University, in Victoria, hold scarce pamphlets. The Central Saanich Baptist Church records, in that church, attest to other Negro settlers, while the Nanaimo Archives has a smgle document on Stark family. Interviews on Saltspring Island, as well as in Vancouver, proved of great importance. On the prairies, private papers were less useful. The Glenbow Foundation Archives, in Calgary, holds typescripts and taped interviews with Nettie Ware and seven other black settlers, related papers, and letters on the settlements. The Edmonton Public Library has a clipping file on the Ware family, and the Rutherford Library at the University of Alberta, in Edmonton, has several manuscript local histories. So, too, does the Saskatchewan Legislative Library, the University of Saskatchewan, and the North Battleford and Moose Jaw public libraries. Again, interviews in Amber Valley, Breton, Wildwood, Lloydminster, and Calgary, Alberta and in Maidstone and Battleford, Saskatchewan, proved of greater value. In Great Britain records are voluminous, cherished, yet nonetheless not so well cared for as in North America. Most collections in the British Museum take on a semiofficial character, as with the Bright, Clarkson, Chatham, Cobden, Haldimand, Layard, Liverpool, Peel, and Sturge papers. The BM reading room is unparalleled, of course, for yielding up rare pamphlets, such as the annual reports of the Sierra Leone Company or the Elgin Association; odd copies of the Nova Scotia Packet for 1786, almanacks, and other printed primary sources. The Archives of the Hud­ son’s Bay Company, at London’s Beaver House, provided many references to Negroes in the fur trade. Somerset House on the Strand, through its wills; the College of Arms, in its modest Joseph Brant file; the West India Committee Library, in the minutes of that body for the nineteenth century; the visitor’s register in the Lambeth Palace Library; and the Estlin Papers in Dr. Williams Library—all in London, also proved helpful. University College, London, houses the papers of Lord Brougham, which fortunately include a full, annotated index to that collection’s fifty thousand letters. Of particular value for this study were the various archives and libraries of the London-based missionary societies. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel was exceptionally important. It holds the account and minute books of the Associates of Dr. Bray, the Canadian Papers of that group, abstracts of proceedings, the journals and reports of the SPG, and special West African and Nova Scotian files, together with the Houseal cor­ respondence and many pamphlets. The original SPG letters from Nova Scotia are contained in a file box labeled “Dr. Bray’s Associates, Canadian Papers.” While most of this material is now on microfilm at the PAC, the film is unusually difficult to use, and one is well advised to consult the �510 A Note on Sources originals if at all possible. The Muniment Room of the Methodist Mis­ sionary Society holds twenty boxes of letters from the Canadian colonies to London, of which six were pertinent. (All are on microfilm in the United Church of Canada Archives at Victoria University, Toronto.) The Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge preserves annual reports and lists of votes for grants of money; the Church Missionary Society held relevant journals; and Friends’ House contains letters to and from Phila­ delphia that proved relevant, as well as the journals of John Candler and his wife. The other great classification of records in Britain upon which I drew were those of antislavery groups. By far the most important is the large antislavery collection at Rhodes House, Oxford. This consists of most of the papers of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (and the AntiSlavery and Aborigines Protection Society), which are systematically transferred from the latter body’s headquarters at Denison House, in Lon­ don, to Rhodes House, every ten years. (The Society retains a small re­ search library, the Thomas Binns Collection of pamphlets, some reports of the Sierra Leone Company, and a modern file on Sierra Leone for the period of independence.) Rhodes House holds the early minute books, memorials and petitions, correspondence, and files of the printed Annual Reports and of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter, from 1840. These papers were acquired in 1951. To them have been added manuscripts on the South African Labour Corps of World War I, which grew from an offshoot of the Society—the Committee for the Welfare of Afri­ cans in Europe—and manuscripts relating to Indians in Canada. The antislavery papers have been edited and microfilmed, with an introduction by Howard R. Temperley, the author of a forthcoming study on the AngloAmerican antislavery connection which I have read in manuscript. Elsewhere in the United Kingdom one finds a variety of lesser collec­ tions. The Earl Fitzwilliam Papers, in the Sheffield Central Library Archives, and other Fitzwilliam Papers in the Northamptonshire Record Office at Delapre Abbey, were relevant to the story of Sir John Went­ worth. The Southampton Civic Record Office has made available the papers of George S. Smyth. Wilberforce House, at Kingston upon Hull, the Ips­ wich Central Library, and the East Suffolk and Ipswich Record Office in Ipswich hold papers of the ubiquitous Thomas Clarkson. Other Clarkson letters are in the hands of Thomas Hodgkin, of Oxford, who was kind enough to grant me access to them at his home in Umington; and in the Granville Sharp papers, at Hardwicke Court, Gloucester, which LieutenantColonel A. Lloyd-Baker, their owner, made available. The John Rylands Library in Manchester has some George Thompson materials and the Crawford Muniments, containing letters written by Earl Balcarres. The Royal Archivist at Windsor Castle consulted the appointments book of A Note on Sources 511 Queen Victoria for me, while the Greenwich Naval Library microfilmed the log of the Sandown, which touches upon the Asia. The National Library of Scotland, in Edinburgh, has the Edward Ellice Papers, while the papers of the Earl of Dalhousie, in the Scottish Record Office, contain correspondence with Bathurst for the Refugee period. The County Archives of the East Riding of Yorkshire, in Beverley, holds one such letter. There are Simcoe Papers in the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth and in the Devon Record Office, Exeter. A petition from Hitchin, Herts., relating to the fugitive slaves in Canada, listed by Charles O. Paullin and Frederic L. Paxson in their 1914 Guide to the Manuscripts in London Archives for the History of the United States since 1783 (Washington), as being in the House of Lords Papers, could not be traced. Some records that one would like to consult are apparently gone for­ ever. We know that the papers of Reverend Daniel Cock, as well as most of those of Benjamin Lundy, were destroyed by fire. None of the original records of the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada have been preserved out­ side the George Brown papers. The papers of Sam Hughes appear not to have survived in any quantity. Materials relating to T. B. Macaulay are said to exist in a garage in suburban Montreal although efforts to gain access to them failed. While the widows of both Marcus Garvey and Rich­ ard Wright sent me various printed materials, they were unable to make available any manuscript collections. No references to the Fort Erie meet­ ing survive in the papers of W. E. B. DuBois, now in the hands of Herbert Aptheker, who kindly searched them for me. One could also wish that registers of marriage had been kept in Ontario prior to 1867, but they were not, and thus only Anglican and Roman Catholic interracial marriages could be documented for Canada West. Archives in other lands proved of marginal utility. In Bermuda, the Bahamas, and Jamaica, local archives, public libraries, and churches yielded records relating to the period when Canadian-West Indian Union was under desultory discussion. This documentation is cited in my recent short monograph, subtitled A Forty-Year Minuet (London, 1968). The Jamaican Institute, the public library of Montego Bay, and the University of the West Indies hold rare printed materials on the Maroon Wars. The Sierra Leone Archives, in Freetown, contain John Clarkson’s draft diary, while the library of the University of Sierra Leone has the diaries of George Ross. In Freetown I interviewed some members of the Sierra Leone Settlers’ Descendents League. In Bathurst, The Gambia, I passed an exciting week in anticipation while working through the archives—then totally unorganized and strewn about a small shed—to find only two docu­ ments relating to the Nova Scotians, duplicated elsewhere. By chance, the diary of Thomas Haweis, in the Mitchell Library, Sydney, Australia, while being searched for another purpose, helped to confirm one aspect of the �J14 A Note on Sources Nova Scotian migration. In Paris, visits to the Bibliotheque Nationale, the Archives Nationale, and related archives confirmed that the transcripts (many handwritten) in the PAC and in Quebec were full and accurate Finally, one must note other papers which remain in private hands but which nonetheless were made available to me, in addition to those men­ tioned above. Fred Landon’s private collection, to which that devoted scholar gave all interested historians ready access, proved to be of great value, especially on the 1840s and 1850s. Consulted in Professor Landon s home in London, Ontario, these materials have been transfered si nee his death in 1969 to the University of Western Ontario. Of only slightly less value were the records kept in the Cornwallis Street Baptist Church in Halifax. These include the reports of the African Association of Nova Scotia, and also of the Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People together with extensive church records. Other churches in British Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, and Nova Scotia also opened up their records. The documents of the Negro Community Centre in Monfreal, made selectively available by Stanley Cylke, and those of the Canadian Labour Congress, discussed above, were particularly useful So too was the private collection of Mr. Alvin McCurdy of Amherstburg who has drawn together many local records on the Negro community along the Detroit River. At the Harvard School of Public Health I was given unrestneted access to the original research transcripts of the “Stirling County” project, which includes raw data on Negro residents in Digby County, Nova acoua. 1 advertized for individuals to come forward with materials, and a number did so In this way files, letters, and clippings were made available on Matthew Henson, by Herbert M. Frisby of Baltimore; on John Ware bv ettie Ware of Kirkaldy, Alberta; on Henry Yandusen, an early black settler, by Glen Ladd of Dresden; on J. B. Harkin, by Miss Dora Barber of Ottawa; on Negro Freemasonry in Canada, by Reginald V. Harris of Halifax; and on the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and the British Columbia Association for the Advancement of Colored People, by Frank Collms of Burnaby. Mrs. Keith Staebler loaned her notes on New Road and her letters to her husband, written at the time; the Reverend William P. G l!f’ f1S,h°P W- L WaUs> and Reverends Charles Este and Winston • H. Clarke, as well as Messrs. Stanley G. Grizzle and Daniel G Hill all made personal items available. Cecil Flarmsworth King kindly permitted’the author to examine his copy of John Clarkson’s diary in his office at the London Daily Mirror. (This diary has since gone to the University of Illinois.) Many others wrote letters of reminiscence, provided references sent clippings from local newsapers, and simply offered encouragement in response to my appeals printed in a variety of j'ournals. A Note on Sources 513 Printed Materials been indiciateddabovpOIAeS vT ^ scarce Published materials have . f . . e' A Wlde vanety printed sources, especially annual reports of societies and government agencies, is cited in the notel These 18971 fr?i> It6 leSU!‘ Relations and AUied Documents (Cleveland 211; ed:ted^y Reuben Gold Thwaites> through the annual reports of die Education Department of Nova Scotia. Wherever possible the originals bv Pauff rnatenals have been consulted, as with the Relation of 1632, d n ‘1 Je.une; Whl^h ,s ln the John Carter Brown Library in Provi°f parUcular value were the annual reports of the Canadian League n7th \r v"CeTn C° °red People’ of the United Baptist Convention bers 3 T °£ ““ Elgin Associatio11 (°f which only numbers 3, 4, 6-7, and 10-11 appear to have survived, although number 2 is quoted in the Voice of the Fugitive for November 5, 1851, and number 5 m Bcnjamms Drews work), and of the British Columbia Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Some reports that one expected to p °f value—those of the Upper Canada Committee of the Society for the Propaga ion of the Gospel m Foreign Parts, for example—proved of little use whde others that one ordinarily would pass over (the Proceedings of the Semi-Annual and Annual Session of the Grand Lodge of A.F and A A widT ° fT ' - ' } W6re f0Und t0 conta“ Negro-related records. A wide range of almanacs, maps, novels, artifacts (as with Negro berry bas­ kets preserved in the Citadel Museum in Halifax), and “association items” !nn-'cTCr^ , ,° be!onging to John Scoble> or l°^s of Thomas Clarkson s hair) helped to demonstrate a relationship, an activity, or an attitude. Other contemporary materials are less difficult to find. The British Canadian, and provincial Hansard’s, for example, provide most of the evidence on the legislative record. The published accounts by fugitive Josiah FT ^ 7w7 WeUS Br°Wn’ Uwis Clarke- Frederick Douglass, osiah Henson, J. W. Loguen, Austm Steward, or Samuel Ringgold Ward ell WC°ntem^r7 cW°rks of Beniamin Drew, Levi Coffin, Samuel Tosenhy<S°We’ 7?“ { E' Lmt0n’ Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charles Stuart, Joseph Stage, and others, are all central to this study. The value of most of these is mdicated at the appropriate places in the notes. Newspapers and Magazines While newspapers are a particularly valuable source for the historian they also present special problems. Full files of any except the major met­ ropolitan papers are not likely to have survived and if one wishes to con­ sult an entire run of a single newspaper, issues often must be pieced • �? 514 A Note on Sources together from a variety of locations. Viewed as a source of data, a single issue of a single paper has its values; viewed, as in this study, as a source of public opinion, and as a molder of that opinion as well, longer and co­ herent runs of a paper are essential. Before accepting a news item, the historian must do what he can to verify its version against other types of sources or, failing such sources, against another newspaper. The re­ searcher must know of the newspaper’s ownership, the politics of its man­ agement and of its editors, the extent to which it may be dependent upon advertising revenue for survival, and the nature of its readership. Ob­ viously, news concerning Negro activities that appears in a Negro news­ paper differs from news that appears in an anti-Negro paper. Equally obviously, the estimate given to the size of an abolitionist meeting by the antislavery Toronto Globe is to be set off against an estimate provided by the anti-abolitionist Toronto Leader, although not necessarily equally. The editorial opinions of Toronto’s Christian Guardian will spring from differ­ ent sources than the opinions expressed by a secular press. And one must view distinctions within their time, for most nineteenth-century newspapers in North America, even if overtly secular, employed biblical and racial rhetoric on their editorial pages. Apart from the problem of interpretation there is, when dealing with the press of the last century and a half, the added problem of quantity. The nineteenth century was a time of thriving local newspapers, and for a full understanding of what Canadians read about black men (or about events which would have given rise to thoughts about black men, as re­ porting on the Civil War and Reconstruction in the United States did), one might reasonably be expected to examine many dozens of titles. In the twentieth century, with the growth of massive Sunday newspapers, of supplements, and of advertising, the researcher must contend with a bulk beyond the capacity of any one person. Yet these newspapers demand examination, for on their editorial pages, in their news items, among the social notes, through those letters to the editor which they chose to print, and even in the products they advertized, one may find frequent suggestions of racial awareness. A full content analysis of the Canadian press on this subject would be a lengthy study in itself (and very possibly not worth­ while). Accordingly, I narrowed the range of research in two ways. Leaving myself thirty-two newspapers which I examined personally and—to the extent that complete files were available—on an issue-by-issue basis, I chose forty-five other newspapers, largely weeklies, which both I and bursary assistants examined on the basis of specific known events, or in the light of a bulking of Negro-related news items in the initial twentythree papers. These thus came to comprise a “control” group. Further, since it quickly became apparent that no single researcher could keep A Note on Sources 515 abreast of press opinion and news items in the decade of the 1960s (dur­ ing which time this investigation was made) while carrying out other re­ search as well, I sought professional help. From 1960 to 1968 the Canadian Press Clipping Service of Toronto supplied weekly sets of material drawn from the entire spectrum of the Canadian press, including all items referring to Negroes—whether in the United States or Canada— and to discrimination, against whatever group. The specific newspapers drawn upon, 210 titles in all, are indicated seriatim in the footnotes. A full list would be superfluous here, as well as unduly cumbersome, especially since masthead titles often changed two or three times. These clippings have also been given to the Schomburg Collection. Certain newspapers were of particular help. Fortunately, many are now available on microfilm from the Canadian Library Association; and the Public Archives of Canada, which has runs of all those on film, will loan its microfilm holdings. The Ontario Public Archives provides many others. In this way one could examine, for example, the Amherstburg Echo for 1888-1949, the Charlottetown Islander for 1853-65, the Chatham Journal for 1841-44, the Chatham Planet for 1850-58, The Christian Guardian for 1837-39, the Fredericton New Brunswick Royal Gazette for 1786-1816, the Halifax Acadian Recorder for 1813-1919, the Halifax Herald for 1897-1938, the Halifax Journal for 1796-1817, the Halifax Morning Chronicle for 1884-1969, the Halifax Novascotian for 1841-47, the Halifax Royal Gazette for 1752-1824, the Hamilton Spectator for 1916-47, the London Free Press for 1859-1969, the Montreal Gazette for 1840-1969, the Montreal Witness for 1846-54, the Quebec Gazette for 1768-94, the Saint John Globe for 1847-1912, the Saint John New Brunswick Courier for 1849-52, the Saint John Royal Gazette for 17841800, the Toronto Globe for 1850-1969 (in later years the Globe & Mail), the Toronto Financial Post for 1942-69, the Toronto Mail and Empire for 1911-28, the Toronto Star for 1930-65, the Toronto Tele­ gram for 1924-69, the Vancouver Province for 1935-69, the Victoria Colonist for 1859-1969, the Victoria Daily Evening Express for 1863-65, and the York Upper Canada Gazette for 1793-1838. The Maidstone Mirror for 1943-53 is on microfilm in the Saskatchewan archives. Joseph Howe’s personal copies of The Nova Scotia Chronicle and Weekly Advertiser, together with the Nova Scotia Gazette and Weekly Chronicle, both from Halifax, are in the PANS. For background on many of these papers at mid­ nineteenth century, see Helen Elliot, comp., Fate, Hope and Editorials: Contemporary Accounts and Opinions in the Newspapers, 1862-1873, Microfilmed by the CLA/ACB Microfilm Project (Ottawa, 1967). Another approach was to examine, in so far as possible, all of the press of a single key community. For this purpose Windsor was chosen, and extant files of the Windsor Herald, Daily Star, and Daily Record, were �516 A Note on Sources consulted. For Halifax, in addition to the papers cited above, the Nova Scotia Packet, Weekly Chronicle, Mail-Star, Herald, and Evening Mail were used. Particularly important, of course, were the abolitionist newspapers. In Canada these were the Voice of the Fugitive, published in Windsor from 1851 to 1852 (with a file in the Burton Historical Collection of the Detroit Public Library); The Provincial Freeman, from Chatham, 1853-ca. 1857 (the originals of which are in the University of Pennsylvania Library), the short-lived Voice of the Bondsman, from Stratford (with a single 1856 copy surviving in the library of the University of Western Ontario), and The True Royalist, of Hamilton (of which two copies may be found in the Fort Malden Museum). In the United States there were far more such newspapers, and they have survived longer. Those that were searched (al­ though there is much duplicated content among them) were the National Anti-Slavery Standard from New York, 1840-70 (New York Public Li­ brary), The Friend of Man, 1836-38 (on film), Garrison’s Boston-based Liberator, 1831-65, The Oberlin Evangelist for 1848-53 only, The AntiSlavery Record, New York, 1835-37, Anti-Slavery Examiner, New York, 1836-45, American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter, New York, 1840-46, Anti-Slavery Lecturer, from Utica, N.Y., 1839, The Emanci­ pator, New York, 1834—49, and the National Anti-Slavery Bazaar, Boston, 1845-50 (all at Yale); The Genius of Universal Emancipation, Benjamin Lundy’s parapetetic newspaper, 1821—39 (The Johns Hopkins University Library); and Frederick Douglass’ Paper, for 1853, and the Salem, Ohio, Anti-Slavery Bugle, 1845-60 (both LC). Also consulted was the New York Herald for 1854—71, which is not cited in the footnotes since it was drawn upon heavily in a previous book by the author, and since most of its news items on Negro activities in Canada were reprinted from other sources. Of the greatest value was the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter to which ‘and Aborigines Friend' was later added, published in London 1840-1966 (Yale University Library, 1840-57, 1859-67, and 1857—59 on microfilm). American and Canadian Negro newspapers were a chief source of in­ formation and opinion. All Canadian Negro newspapers and magazines, as discussed in Chapter 13, were researched on an issue-for-issue basis. Locations of files are discussed in the notes to that chapter. Of some sixtythree American Negro newspapers available on microfilm by 1968, eighteen were used. Those that proved to be helpful were the St. Paul Appeal and St. Paul Broad Axe (not to be confused with the Chicago Broad Ax, which was also consulted), The Elevator, from San Francisco, in which Mifflin Wistar Gibb’s articles appeared, New York’s Amsterdam News, the Pittsburg Courier, the Detroit Plaindealer, and the Cleveland Gazette. A Note on Sources 517 Several newspapers were used at the office of the papers themselves, on occasion with the aid of an informal index compiled locally for in-house purposes. That this method of approach was useful may be shown by the Saint John Telegraph. Two important items relating to the Refugee Negroes of the 1820s, drawn from reminiscences of early settlers in Nova Scotia, appeared in issues in 1875 and 1884. The New Freeman, a Roman Catholic newspaper, also of Saint John, and read in that paper’s library, first revealed in its issues for 1903 the controversy with Neith magazine’ as related in Chapter 13. The Toronto Star's clipping file proved of great use as well. Regrettably, two files of newspapers that might well have en­ riched the story told here were not found: The Truro News, of which only a post-1949 run survives in that paper’s office, following upon a fire in that year; and the Dresden Times, published weekly from 1872 into the 1890s. Magazines, like newspapers, are organs of opinion. The number of articles on Negro-related subjects, as well as their content, is one index to the degree of interest in the “Negro problem.” Articles on race relations in the United States, appearing in contemporary Canadian periodicals__ Atlantic Advocate, Commentary, Canadian Forum, Canada Week, Maclean's, Saturday Night—reveal much about the use of the Negro as a metaphor in the relations between the two countries. Articles in welfareoriented journals, such as Canadian Labour Reports, the Journals of Edu­ cation for both Ontario and Nova Scotia, Canadian Welfare, L'Action nationale, The Labour Gazette, The Journal of the Y.M.C.A., The Angli­ can, or The United Church Record and Missionary Review, increasingly contain Negro-related materials. American journals, especially in the nine­ teenth century, had occasion to report on the progress of the fugitives in Canada and, later, on race relations in the Dominion. Thus, Atlantic Monthly, The Chautauquan, The Literary Digest, The Living Age, the New York Times Magazine, The North American Review, Outlook, Scribner's and The Southern Workman, all contain relevant matter. So, too, do reli­ gious periodicals in both countries: Acadia Bulletin, American Missionary, The [Canadian] Baptist Magazine and Missionary Register, Canadian Christian, Canadian Evangelist, Freewill Baptist Quarterly, Gospel Tribune and Christian Communionist, The Maritime Baptist, The United Church Observer, the Upper Canada Baptist Missionary Magazine, and several others. The most important British publications were the American Baptist Free Mission Society (seen in the American Antiquarian Society), Arminian Magazine, Baptist Annual Register, The Colonial Protestant, Free Church of Scotland Monthly, and Herald of Peace. British and Canadian popular periodicals were of substantial help'. These include �518 A Note on Sources A Note on Sources 519 Of Riches (1957) or The Innocent Traveller (1949) respectivelv Still clnadiln erilS,S; Anglo-American Magazine, Canadian Antiquarian, prrj Il‘ustrfed News- Canadian Magazine, The European Magazine Monthlv’l d yp Cana?en‘ The Imperial Magazine, Knox College Journal'TheTn The Maple Lea<- Numismatic Z ,'T A Llterary and AntiSl™ery Journal, and The Unirsity agazine. Special interest publications were often of value- Ca­ nadian Cigar and Tobacco Journal, Canada-West Indies Magazine, McDuff !ro, r'; v?" Merchant, West India Commercial Cir- cuiar, or the New York organ of the Ku Klux Klan, the American Standard. fun?seSdatA°nS °f \nd fM Canadiaa and American Negroes were careMly searched. Among these were those magazines discussed in Chapter 13 journal rt AtS A/kan In!erpreter’ African Repository and Colonial i , ' _ Afro~Ame/ican Magazine, The AME Church Review Amherstburg Quarterly Mission Journal, The Black Man, The Black Worker c2Ze/r!nenCanr Challense’ The stored American Magazine, The Th M Ha,vesl- Crisis, Ebony, The Freedman’s Advocate, The Informer PalmTh^’v68™ Dl8eSt (D0W BlaCk W°rld)’ Negr0 World> Pine and Palm, The Spoken Word," and The Street Speaker. Most of the above were consulted at the Library of Congress the Yale University Lib™,, ,b, British Mnsenm, or the&hombTJ CoM™ Exceptions are the Canadian religious periodicals, read in the New York Pubhc Library, at Acadia University, McMaster University, the Union SoStTtP S”r{/New Y°* City), the American Bapiist Historic^ y ( ochester, New York), or the Southwestern Baptist Theological v^Tvh F°rlWonh)- Four earlier journals were consulted at the Har­ vard library: American Baptist Magazine and Missiona,y Intelligencer nublSdSe“sBatptlS‘ Maftme, Massachusetts Missionary Magazine (all published m Boston), and Vermont Baptist Missionary Magazine (Ruttwe^fl J’°UrAnaIS gave t0 othera> of a secular nature, in the twentieth century. Again, as m the 1920s so in the 1960s, Canadian fiction m magazines and books reflected continental norms, and the black man was set to play the same roles in Canadian as in American fiction. Negroes be­ gan to appear with regularity in Canadian novels, still as stock figures but now supporting °*T stereotyPes- Mazo de la Roche wrote her poorest h k’!fr0miP8 at Jahla (1961). about pro-Southern Canadians during the r Civil War; Ernest Buckler, a highly regarded Maritime novelist, was to prove unexpectedly graceless when he attempted to hint at prejudice in Nova Scotia’s classrooms in his 1959 short story, “Long, Long after School” (A fanttc Advocate, 52 [1959], 42-44); and even GabrieUe Roy and Ethel Wilson, fastidious writers both, could not bring black men to life in Street D.«, ,„d tvtog L„lm, r„ -rs-sri«2r- “d ^ i»«" L™‘ undesirable Negroes, so did lib.,1 men novels: The Apprenticeship of Daddy KravTtz (1959) r/! .SUCCessi011 °f (1963), and CociW (1968) It wa left to 1’ Ineom*rdHe srr “ covertly and frequently overtly-had become part of tte baggage for the Canadian of the 1960s, a far wfder range ofmaterids S .h...*h te Zta p=Jddts^™ d”i «S o?r“! ,0,bl'Clt-Whl“ "“«=>">■'- Few r«LS ,„ fa,t ,o nS of the journals mentioned above, have been incorporated into the footnotes rightly the provmce of the social scientist than of the humanist*1*10118 m°le I Still, , not all knowledge arises from the printed word. Interviews with mo„ many dozens: of Canadian Negroes, from Cape Breton Uland to Vancou !!L“’ fPSd t0 Provide a background of attitudes, recollections regrets, and pleasures for the post-1865 years. Seldom ’ was I refused the �1 I 520 A Note on Sources gift of time, attention, and of being taken seriously; often this gift was accompanied by a willingness to bring out faded photographs, wedding invitations, and family Bibles, the visual evidence of a past that was thought worth remembering. Such items are not “documents” to add to the piling of note upon note—no more than the casual conversation with a black laborer, a sidewalk artist, or a school custodian may be—but they provide above all the interest and the pleasure to sustain the more traditional search for evidence. There are many thousands of Negroes in Canada to whom I was not able to talk, and this study is the weaker for that. It is nonetheless much the stronger for the help of those with whom I could talk, for the fact that no one appeared to feel that the end result would lack “relevance” to the continuing black experience. These contacts often took place at the scenes of events described in this book, for no archive can provide a substitute for traversing the ground of history itself. One must see for oneself precisely where William King’s house stood, or William Peyton Hubbard was buried, or John Clarkson spoke to the assembled Nova Scotians. To see the Cockpit Country of Jamaica; to view Freetown from the heights above Fourah Bay; to write upon a table in Kingston upon Hull where Wilberforce wrote—in short, to experience the place, the sight, and occasionally the sound of history is to remind oneself that the historian must always use that slight gift of intuition which makes the leaps of faith he takes between evidence and conclusion possible. It is in such places and moments as these, as well as in the con­ tinuing chase within the confines of an archive, that the historian must ever seek his pleasure and his sole reward. Index In the index, as well as the text, hyphens appear in French-Canadian names when their owners generally used them, and otherwise not. Place names in Canada but not stanhvCHnameS d“Where’ are indexed- °nly ^ose footnotes which contain sub­ discussion of a point are included in the index. The maps are omitted, as is the Note on Sources, except for pages 512 and 519-20. Abbott, Anderson Ruffin, 328-32 passim Afro-American Press Association, 393 335, 412n41 Afro-Beacon, The, 404 Abbott, Ellen Toyer, 328-29 Agnew, Stair, 44, 108, 109 Abbott, Wilson Ruffin, 211, 212, 226 Alake of Abeokuta, 167 255, 328-29, 357, 367 Alberta: settlement in, 287; Oklahoma Acadia University, 350, 383 Negroes in, 303, 305-06; civil rights Activism: in the church, 351-52; growth legislation in, 428 of, 414-68 Alcan project, 422 Adams, Elias, 258 Alexander, Arthur, 314 Adams, Grantley Herbert, 442 Alexander, Charles, 277 Addington, 133 Alexander, Lincoln, 459-60, 489, 494 Adolphustown, 33 Allan, William, 352 Africa: migrations to Sierra Leone, 44, Allen, Isaac, 44, 108, 109 56, 57, 61-78, 90-94; Bulama settle­ Allen, Richard, 154-55, 355 ment in, 74, 75; settlement in Liberia, Allen, William, 152 154; Canadian reaction to apartheid Amber Valley, 303, 306, 308, 381 in, 445-48 Amelia Island, 116 African Aid Society, 168 American and Foreign Anti-Slavery So­ African Association of Nova Scotia, 512 ciety, 173, 263, 264 African Baptist Association of Nova American Anti-Slavery Society, 149 179 Scotia, 139 220,236,263,490 ’ * African Methodist Episcopal Church American Baptist, The, 342 (AME), 154, 231, 355-60, 394 American Baptist Anti-Slavery Conven­ African Methodist Episcopal Zion tion, 219 Church (AMEZ), 355, 359 American Baptist Free Mission Society African Orthodox Church, 354, 415 200-03 passim, 206, 230-31, 342 African Students Association of the American Baptist Missionary Union, 342 United States and Canada, 442 American Colonization Society, 154-55 African United Baptist Association of 162, 257 * Nova Scotia, 139, 345-48 passim, American Missionary Association 386-87 (AMA), 207-08, 224-27, 271, 397 African United Nations Emergency American Nazi Party, 468n66 Force, 445-46 American Revolution, affect on Negroes Africa Speaks, 404, 408-09, 412/z40 29-31,46,61 “ 3 Africville, 130, 348, 383, 384, 389, 411 American Tract Society, 221, 222 420, 441, 452-56 Amherst, 27, 52 Afro-American Council, 359 Amherst, Jeffrey, 24 521 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lyman Wilmot House Description An account of the resource This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deerfield Public Library Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Public Library Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Note on Sources The Blacks in Canada: A History Description An account of the resource Photocopy from The Blacks in Canada of a section entitled "A Note on Sources." Some highlighting. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Winks, Robin W. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Yale University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013.033 A Bibliography of Antislavery in America A Forty-Year MInuet A Select Bibliography of the American Negro A Side Light on Anglo-American Relations A. Lloyd-Baker Abby K. Foster Aberystwyth Wales United Kingdom Abolitionist Newspapers Abstracts Acadia Bulletin Acadia Documents Acadia University Acadia University Library Acadiensis Magazine Activities Actuarial Records Adams Tolman Addington Historical Society Addington Ontario Canada Adolphustown Canada Advertising Revenue Africa Africa Speaks African Aid Society African American Fremasonry African American Newspapers African Americana African Association of Nova Scotia African Canadian Newspapers African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church African Orthodox Church African Repository and Colonial Journal African Students Association of the United States and Canada African United Baptist Association of Nova Scotia African United Nations Emergency Force Africville Afro-American Council Afro-American Press Association Alake of Abeokuta Alaskan Highway Alberta Canada Alberta Churches Alberta Civil Rights Legislation Alberta Department of Lands and Forests Alcan Project Alexander Crummell Alexander McNeilledge Alexander Tilloch Galt Almanacs Alvin McCurdy Amasa Walker Amber Valley Amber Valley Alberta Canada AME Church Amelia Harris Amelia Island American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society American Anti-Slavery Society American Antiquarian Society American Antiquarian Society Stephen and Abby K. Foster Papers American Baptist Anti-Slavery Convention American Baptist Free Mission Society American Baptist Free Mission Society Magazine American Baptist Historical Society American Baptist Magazine and MIssionary Intelligencer American Baptist Missionary Union American Civil War American Colonization Society American Consulates American Missionary Association American Missionary Magazine American Nazi Party American Negro History Society American Reconstruction Era American Revolution American Standard Magazine American Tract Society Amherst Amherstburg Association Amherstburg Churches Amherstburg Deeds Amherstburg Echo Amherstburg Ontario Canada Amherstburg Public Library Amherstburg Public Library Boyle Collection Amherstburg Quarterly Mission Journal Amherstburg Schools Amos A. Lawrence Amos A. Phelps Amsterdam News Anderson Ruffin Abbott Angelina Grimke Anglican Church Anglican Interracial Marriages Anglo-American Antislavery Connection Ann Arbor Michigan Anne Heloise Abel Annotated Books Annual Reports Anthony Burns Anti-Black Bias Anti-Black Bias in History Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society Anti-Slavery Bugel Anti-Slavery Examiner Anti-Slavery in America from the Introduction of African Slaves to the Prohibition of the Slave Trade Anti-Slavery Lecturer Anti-Slavery Society of Canada Antigonish Nova Scotia Canada Antislavery Groups Antislavery Pamphlets Antislavery Societies Apartheid Archives Archives du Palais de Justice Archives Nationale Archives of British Columbia Archives of Saskatchewan Archives of Saskatchewan Regina Branch Archives of Saskatchewan Saskatoon Branch Arminian Magazine Arthur Alexander Arthur Hamer Arthur Tappan Artifacts Asia Assessment Rolls Atlanta Georgia Atlanta University Atlantic Advocate Magazine Atlantic Monthly Magazine Auburn New York Augustus F. Pemberton Austin Steward Autobiography Aux Cayes Haiti B.F. Stevens Bahamas Baltimore Maryland Baptisms Baptist Annual Register Barrie Ontario Canada Barrie Public Library Bathurst Bathurst The Gambia Battleford Saskatchewan Canada Beaver House Bengough Benjamin Drew Benjamin Lundy Benjamin Singleton Benjamin Tappan Berea College Bermuda Beverley England Biased Histories Bibliotheque Nationale Bibliotheque Nationale Fonds Francais Births Black Canadians Black History Black Pioneers Black World BME Church Booker T. Washington Boston Athenaeum Library Boston Massachusetts Boston Public Library Boston Public Library Maria Weston Papers Breton Alberta Canada British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines Friend British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society Committee for the Welfare of Africans in Europe British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society Research Library British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society Thomas Binns Collection British Colonial Office British Columbia Association for the Advancement of Colored People British Columbia Churches British Military Records British Museum British Museum Additional Manuscripts on Exports and Imports of North America British Museum Bright Papers British Museum Chatham Papers British Museum Clarkson Papers British Museum Cobden Papers British Museum Haldimand Papers British Museum Layard Papers British Museum Liverpool Papers British Museum Peel Papers British Museum Reading Room British Museum Sturge Papers British Naval Prisoners' Correspondence British Periodicals Broadsides Brome County Historical Society Bronze American Brookline Massachusetts Brookline Public Library Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Bulama Settlement Sierra Leone Burial Lists Burials Burnaby Canada Calgary Alberta Canada California University Calvin W. Philleo Cambridge Maritime Military Library Cambridge Massachusetts Canada Canada Commissioner of Lands and Works Canada Lieutenant Governor Canada Week Magazine Canada West Canada West Education Department Canada-West Indies Magazine Canadian Antiquarian Magazine Canadian Baptist Historical Association Canadian Censuses Canadian Christian Magazine Canadian Cigar and Tobacco Journal Canadian Colonies Canadian Evangelist Magazine Canadian Fiction Canadian Forum Magazine Canadian Illustrated News Canadian Labour Congress Canadian Labour Congress Joint Advisory Committee on Human Relations Canadian Labour Reports Canadian Land TItles Office Canadian League for the Advancement of Colored People Canadian Library Association Canadian Magazine Canadian National Gallery of Art Canadian Novels Canadian Periodicals Canadian Press Canadian Press Clipping Service of Toronto Canadian Prime Ministers Canadian Provincial Archives Canadian Rebellions of 1837-1838 Canadian Welfare Magazine Canadian-West Indian Union Cape Breton Island Canada Carl van Vechten Carter G. Woodson Case Western Reserve University Cecil Harmsworth King Central Saanich Baptist Church Certificates of TItle Challenge Chapel Hill North Carolina Charles Alexander Charles Este Charles O. Paullin Charles Stuart Charles Sumner Charles Wager Charlottesville Virginia Charlottetown Canada Charlottetown Islander Charlottetown Public Library Chateau de Ramezay Chatham Board of Education Chatham Board of Public School Trustees Chatham Board of Public School Trustees Meeting Minutes Chatham Journal Chatham Ontario Canada Chatham Planet Chatham-Kent Museum Chicago Broad Ax Chicago Historical Society Chicago Public Library Chipman Christ's Church Christ's Church Rectory Office Christian Guardian Church Activism Church Missionary Society Civil Secretary's Correspondence Cleveland Cleveland Gazette Cleveland Ohio Clifford Sifton Clippings Cocksure Colchester Registry Office College of Arms Colonial and Continental Church Society Colonial and Continental Church Society Annual Reports Colonial and Continental Church Society Minute Books Colonial and Continental Church Society Papers Colonial Missionary Society Columbia University Columbia University George Plimpton Papers Columbia University James T. Shotwell Collection Columbia University John Bartlet Brebner Collection Columbia University L.S. Alexander Gumby Collection of Negroiana Columbia University Sydney Howard Gay Papers Columbia University William J. Wilgus Collection Columbus Ohio Commentary Magazine Concord Free Public Library Concord Free Public Library Sanborn Papers Concord Massachusetts Connecticut Historical Society Continental Congress Cornell University Cornell University Autograph Collection Cornell University College Papers Cornell University Samuel J. May Antislavery Pamphlet File Cornell University Special Collections Cornwallis Street Baptist Church Correspondence Council Minutes Crawford Muniments Crisi Crown Land Papers D.E. Stevenson Daniel Cock Daniel G. Hill David Brion Davis David McLaren Kemp David William Smith Death Certificates Deaths Delapre Abbey Denison House Detroit Historical Society Detroit Michigan Detroit Plaindealer Detroit Public Library Detroit Public Library Burton Historical Collection Detroit River Devon Record Office Digby County Nova Scotia Canada Discrimination Dispatches from the Colonial Office Dissertations Dora Barber Douglass Memorial Home Dr. Bray Dr. Williams Library Dr. Williams Library Estlin Papers Dresden Ontario Canada Dresden Times Duke University Dwight L. Dumond Dwight Lowell Dumond Earl Balcarres Earl Fitzwilliam Earl of Dalhousie Earle H. West East Suffolk and Ipswich Record Office Eastman Ebenezer Robson Ebony Edge Edinburgh Scotland Edith Rossiter Bevan Edmonton Alberta Canada Edmonton Public Library Edmund Quincy Edward Cridge Edward Everett Edward Everett Augustus John Foster Edward Vernon Elgin Association Elgin Settlement Elias Adams Elihu Burritt Elijah Lovejoy Elizabeth Cady Stanton Elizabeth Russell Elizur Wright Ellen Toyer Abbott Ernest Buckler Essex County Ontario Canada Ethel Wilson Etter Evidence Excelsior Exchange Exeter England F.W. Pickens Family Bibles Family Letters Fate Hope and Editorials: Contemporary Accounts and Opinions in the Newspapers 1862-1873 Fisk University Fisk University American Missionary Association Archives Fisk University Library Flash Fort Erie Fort Malden Museum Fort Malden National Historical Park Fort Malden National Historical Park Museum Fort Malden National Historical Park Museum F.C.B. Fall and Farney Papers Fort Worth Texas Fourah Bay Frances Write Francis Hawks Francis Parkman Frank Collins Frank Hoyt Wood Frank J. Klingberg Franklin B. Sanborn Fraternal Organizations Fred Landon Frederic L. Paxson Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass' Paper Fredericton Canada Fredericton New Brunswick Royal Gazette Free Church of Scotland Monthly Magazine Freetown Sierra Leone Freewill Baptist Quarterly Magazine Fremont Ohio French Archives de la Marine French Archives des Colonies French Canadian Friends' House Fugitive Slave Files Fugitive Slave Settlements Fur Trade G.C. Porter Gabrielle Roy Genealogical Charts Genealogical Materials Genealogy Files George Brown George Ellis George Julien George PLimpton George S. Smyth George Thompson George Washington Gerrit Smith Gerrit Smith Miller Gertrude Stein Gideon Welles Giles Hocquart Glen Ladd Glenbow Foundation Archives Globe and Mail Gloucester England Gospel Tribune and Christian Communionist Magazine Governmental Papers Grand African Methodist Episcopal Church Records Grant African Methodist Episcopal Church Grantley Herbert Adams Granville Sharp Great Britain Great Britain Public Record Office Great Britain Public Record Office Admiralty Series 1 Great Britain Public Record Office British Army in America Headquarters Papers Great Britain Public Record Office Chatham Papers Great Britain Public Record Office Confidential Minute Papers on The Gambia Great Britain Public Record Office WO Series 1 Greenwich Naval Library Guide to the Manuscripts in London Archives for the History of the United States Since 1783 Guy Carleton Halifax Acadian Recorder Halifax Chronicle-Herald Halifax Citadel Museum Halifax Evening Mail Halifax Herald Halifax Journal Halifax Mail-Star Halifax Morning Chronicle Halifax Nova Scotia Halifax Novascotian Halifax Public Library Halifax Public Library Local History Collection Halifax Royal Gazette Halifax Weekly Chronicle Halvor Steenerson Hamilton Ontario Canada Hamilton Public Library Hamilton Spectator Hampton University Hansards Hardwicke Court Hardwicke Court Granville Sharp Papers Harlem New York City Harper's Ferry Harper's Ferry Select Committee Harriet Beecher Stowe Harriet Tubman Memorial Home Hartford Connecticut Harvard Library Harvard School of Public Health Harvard School of Public Health Stirling County Project Harvard University Houghton Library Harvard University Houghton Library Charles Sumner Papers Harvard University Houghton LIbrary Houghton Theatre Collection Harvard University Houghton Library Ralph Waldo Emerson Collection Harvard University Houghton Library William H. Siebert Collection Hazen Helen Elliot Henry Bibb Henry Clinton Henry Cowles Henry Huntington Library Henry Vandusen Henry Wilson Henson Herald of Peace Magazine Herbert Aptheker Herbert M. Frisby Herts Hiram Walker Historical Museum Hiram Wilson Historiography Hitchin Horace Greeley House of Lords Papers Houseal Howard R. Temperley Howard University Hudson's Bay Company Hudson's Bay Company Archives Hugh Gaine Human Rights Commission Human Rights Commission Toronto Office Human Rights Commission Toronto Office Discrimination Files Illiterate Ilmington England Index India Institutional Organization Interviews Ipswich Central Library Ipswich England Irving Layton Isaac Allen Issac J. Rice Ithaca New York J. George Hodgins J.B. Harkin J.O. Plessis J.S. Matthews J.W. Loguen Jackie Robinson Jamaica Jamaica Cockpit Country Jamaican Institute James Buchanan James C. Fuller James G. Birney James Gillispie Birney James Miller McKim James Murray James R. Roaf James Redpath James T. Shotwell James W. Johanson James Weldon Johnson Jeffrey Amherst Jerry Rescue Joel E. Spingarn John A. Andrew John A. Macdonald John Bartlet Brebner John Brown John Brown Jr. John Candler John Carleton John Carter Brown Library John Clarkson John Edward Bruce John Graves Simcoe John Greenleaf Whittier John H. Rapier Papers John Hopkins University John Hopkins University Library John J.E. Linton John M. Elson John Mitchell John Rylands Library John S. Keyes John Scoble John Sebastian Helmcken john Sherman John Strachan John Taylor John Ware John Wentworth Joseph Brant Joseph Howe Joseph Sturge Joshua Giddings Joshua R. Giddings Josiah Henson Journals Julia Ward Howe Kansas State Historical Society Karl Shapiro Kentucky King's County WIlls Kingston Jamaica Kingston Upon Hull Kirkaldy Alberta Canada Knowlton Quebec Canada Knox College Monthly Ku Klux Klan L.S. Alexander Gumby L'Action Nationale Magazine Lambeth Palace Library Land Records Le Foyer Canadien Leipzig Germany Lennox Historical Society Lennox Ontario Canada Leonard Cohen Letter Books of Dispatches to the Colonial Office Letters of James Gillispie Birney Letters Patent Transcripts Levi Coffin Lewis Clarke Lewis Tappan Liberator Liberia Library of Congress Limbo Lincoln Alexander Lincoln University Literary Criticism Lloydminster Alberta Canada Local Histories Local Newspapers London Daily Mirror London England London Free Press London Methodist Missionary Society London Ontario Canada London Public Library London Review London University College Long Long After School Lord Brougham Lord Shelburne Lot Plans Louis Dudek Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Lowery's Claim Loyalist Settlements Loyalists Lundy's Lane Historical Society Lundy's Lane Ontario Canada Lydia Maria Child M.L. Bondam Maclean's Magazine Magazines Magdalen College Maidstone Mirror Maidstone Saskatchewan Canada Maine Historical Society Maine Historical Society Robert Trelawny Collection Manchester England Manuscript Manuscript Histories manuscripts Maps Marcel Trudel Marcus Garvey Marcus Gunn Maria Trumbull Church Maria Weston Maritime Archives Maritime Baptist Historical Collection Maritime Provinces Marjory Whitelaw Maroon Wars Maroons Marriage Certificates Marriages Mary Church Terrell Mary S. Locke Massachusetts Baptist Magazine Massachusetts Historical Society Massachusetts Historical Society Francis Parkman Papers Massachusetts Missionary Magazine Matthew Henson Mayes Mazo de la Roche McDuff Ottawa Report McGill University McGill University Library McGill University Library Local History Materials McGill University McCord Museum McGill University McCord Museum Porteous Manuscripts McMaster University McMaster University Canadian Baptist Historical Association Collection Methodist Missionary Society Methodist Missionary Society Muniment Room Mifflin Wistar Gibb Mifflin Wistar Gibbs Migration to Sierra Leone Minnesota Historical Society Minnesota Historical Society Halvo Steenerson Papers Minutes Minutes of the Executive Council Missionaries Missionary Societies Mitchell Library Montego Bay Jamaica Montego Bay Public Library Montpelier Vermont Montreal Gazette Montreal Negro Community Centre Montreal Quebec Canada Montreal Witness Moose Jaw Public Library Mordecai Richler Morley Callaghan Morning ad Jalna Mountain Provinces Mrs. Basil Hall Mrs. Edmund George O'Brien Mrs. Keith Staebler Municipal Employee Group Newsletters Mutual Aid Societies Nanaimo Archives Nassau Bahamas National Anti-Slavery Bazaar National Anti-Slavery Standard National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) National Library of Scotland National Library of Scotland Edward Ellice Papers National Library of Wales National Library of Wales Simcoe Papers Naval and Military Departments Treasury Letter Transcripts Negro Digest Negro World Neith Magazine Nettie Ware New Britain Public Library New Brunswick Canada New Brunswick Legislative Library New Brunswick Museum New Brunswick Museum Ryerson Papers New Brunswick Provincial Museum New France New Road New York New York City New York New York Geographical Society New York Geographical Society Library New York Herald New York Historical Society New York Historical Society Correspondence on the Slave Trade and Slavery New York Historical Society Frederick Douglass Papers New York Historical Society Gerrit Smith Papers New York Historical Society Granville Sharp Papers New York Historical Society John Taylor Papers New York Historical Society Miscellaneous Canada Collection New York Historical Society Society for Promoting Manumission of Slaves Records New York Historical Society Thomas Clarkson Papers New York Library for the Performing Arts New York Public Library New York Public Library Alexander Crummell Collection New York Public Library Gideon Welles Papers New York Public Library Horace Greeley Papers New York Public Library James Miller McKim Papers New York Public Library John Edward Bruce Papers New York Public Library Maria Trumbull Church Papers New York Public Library Schomburg Collection New York Public Library Schomburgh Collection New York Public Library William Lloyd Garrison Papers New York Times Magazine Newspaper Editors Newspaper Management Newspaper Management Politics Newspaper Ownership Newspapers Norfolk Historical Society Norfolk Ontario Canada North America North American Social History North Battleford Public Library Northampton Massachusetts Northamptonshire Record Office Northamptonshire Record Office Fitzwilliam Papers Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Colored People Nova Scotia Chronicle and Weekly Advertiser Nova Scotia Churches Nova Scotia Education Department Nova Scotia Gazette and Weekly Chronicle Nova Scotia Jamaican Maroons Nova Scotia Journal of Education Nova Scotia Packet Nova Scotia Provincial Library Novels Novia Scotia Packet Numismatic Journal Oakland Art Gallery Oakland California Oberlin College Oberlin College Special Collections Odell Official Papers Ohio State Historical Society Ohio State Historical Society Benjamin Lundy Papers Ohio State Historical Society John Brown Papers Ohio State Historical Society Joshua Giddings Papers Ohio State Historical Society Wilbur H. Siebert Papers Oklahoma Old Township Settlements Oliver Johnson Onatario Department of Lands and Forests Ontario Canada Ontario Churches Ontario Crown Lands Ontario Department of Lands and Forests History Branch Ontario Journal of Education Ontario Marriage Registers Ontario Provincial Archives Ontario Public Archives Ordres du Roi Orillia Ontario Canada Orillia Public Library Ottawa Canada Ottawa Ontario Canada Outlook Magazine Oxford England Oxford Historical Society Oxford Ontario Canada Oxford Rhodes House Pamphlets Paris France Paul le Jeune Pennfield Settlement Pennsylvania Abolition Society Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society Underground Railroad Journal Pennsylvania State Historical Society Pennsylvania State Historical Society John Brown Papers Pennsylvania State Historical Society Simon Gratz Collection Personal Statements Peter Russell Petitions Philadelphia Pennsylvania Photographs Pictou Nova Scotia Canada Pine and Palm Pioneer Questionnaires Pittsburg Courier Playbills Port Arthur Ontario Canada Port Roseway Associates Minute Books Portia White Portland Maine Prairie Provinces Princeton University Library Prism Private Papers Proceedings Programmes Property Holders Prospecti Providence Public Library Providence Rhode Island Provincial Chasseurs Public Archives of Canada Public Archives of Canada Carleton Transcripts Public Archives of Canada Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Papers Public Archives of Canada Reynolds Family Papers Public Archives of Nova Scotia Public Archives of Nova Scotia Akins Collection Public Archives Record Centre Quantity Quebec Canada Quebec Gazette Quebec Internal Correspondence Quebec Provincial Archives Queen Victoria Queen Victoria Appointments Book Ralph Waldo Emerson Raymond Souster Redpath Refugees REgina Reginald V. Harris Registers Religious Groups Reports Reuben Gold Thwaites Rhodes House Richard Allen Richard Wright Richmond Confederate Memorial Library Richmond Virginia Robert Baldwin Robert Borden Robert Trelawney Robert Vaux Robin W. Winks Robinson Rochester New York Rochester University Rochester University William Henry Seward Collection Roman Catholic Church Roman Catholic Interracial Marriages Russell Rutherford B. Hayes Rutherford B. Hayes Library Rutherford Library Rutland Vermont Saint Francis Xavier University Saint Francis Xavier University Library Saint John Canada Saint John Globe Saint John New Brunswick Courier Saint John Public Library Saint John Royal Gazette Saint John Telegraph Salem Ohio Sales Saltspring Island Canada Sam Hughes Samual A. Eliot Samuel D. Porter Samuel Gridley Howe Samuel J. May Samuel J. May Jr. Samuel May Jr. Samuel Ringgold Ward Samuel Ward San Francisco California San Marino California Sanborn Sandown Sandwich Baptist Church Sandwich Ontario Canada Sarah Grimke Saskatchewan Education Department Saskatchewan Legislative Library Saturday Night Magazine Schomburg Collection Schools Scottish Record Office Scrapbooks Scribner's Magazine Self-Help Societies Semi-Annual and Annual Session of the Grand Lodge of A.F. and A. Masons of Ontario Sheffield Central Library Sheffield Central Library Archives Sheffield Central Library Archives Earl Fitzwilliam Papers Shelburne Canada Sierra Leone Sierra Leone Archives Sierra Leone Company Sierra Leone Migration Sierra Leone Settlers' Descendents League Simcoe County Surrogate Court Office Simeon Perkins Simon Gratz Smith College Smith College Library Smith College Library Sophia Smith Collection Smith College Library W.L. 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Grizzle Stark State Papers of Upper Canada Stephen Foster Stratford Ontario Canada Street of Riches Surveyor-General Letter Books Sushil Kuma Jain Swarthmore College Sydney Australia Sydney Howard Gay Syracuse Historical Society Syracuse New York Syracuse Public Library Syracuse University Syracuse University Library Syracuse University Library Gerrit Smith Miller Papers T.B. 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Scott Thomas Haweis Thomas Henning Thomas Hodgkin Thomas Nye Thomas Smith Thomas Wentworth Higginson Thompson Thunder Bay Historical Society Tom Shows Topeka Kansas Toronto City Council Toronto Emigration Office Toronto Financial Post Toronto Globe Toronto Leader Toronto Mail and Empire Toronto Ontario Toronto Ontario Canada Toronto Public Library Toronto Public Library Hubbard-Abbott Collection Toronto Public Library Smith Papers Toronto Star Toronto Telegram Treasurer's Letters Truro Canada Truro News Tuskegee Institute Ulrich B. 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Burghardt DuBois W.E.B. DuBois W.J. Walls W.L. Garrison II W.W. Patton Walter White War of 1812 Ward Chipman Washington D.C. Wedding Invitations Wellington D. Moses Wendell Phillips West India Commerical Circulator West India Committee Library Western Anti-Slavery Society Western Canada Western Regular Baptist Association Whetsel White Over Black Wilberforce House Wilbur H. Siebert Wildwood Alberta Canada Wilfred Laurier William Allan William Allen William Canniff William Dummer Powell William H. Seward WIlliam H. Siebert William Hall William Henry Seward William J. Wilgus William Jarvis William Johnson William King William Lloyd Garrison William Lyon Mackenzie William Lyon Mackenzie House William P. Oliver William Peyton Hubbard William S. 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Rosen Social Planning 240 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 01/1969 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0001.004.005 1968 Chicago Democratic Convention 1968 Chicago Democratic Convention Riots A. Philip Randolph Action System Adlai E. Stevenson Adrien L. Ringuette African Americans American Friends Service Committee American Public Health Association Analytical Tasks Arnold Gurin Arnold M. Rose Association Press Atherton Press Barry Goldwater Bedroom Community Berkeley California Blackface Minstrel Show Blocking Strategy Boston Massachusetts Brandeis University Brown v. Board of Education Building an Action Structure Building Permits Campaign Strategies Carl E. 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Title A name given to the resource Deerfield Review Obituaries Subject The topic of the resource Obituaries Death Notices Description An account of the resource The obituaries and death notices that appeared in the Deerfield Review newspaper Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deerfield Review Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Review Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Review Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945, 1947-1995 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0007.002 Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1945-1995 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A. Jordan Donohue Obituaries Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Review Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Review Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 8/28/1947 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0007.002.210 A. Jordan Donohue Book Publishers Calvary Cemetery Carrol Funeral Home Chicago Illinois Deerfield Review Evanston Illinois Heart Attack Highland Park Hospital Holy Name Cathedral Kelley and Spalding Funeral Home M.A. Donohue Marcus A. Donohue Mildred Donohue Mrs. John W. Donohue Obituary Richard J. Donohue https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/bf26cb02120635f35f2c059628bd933f.pdf 6d32dd329910b686b9c0e2fe9b297b3f PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lyman Wilmot House Description An account of the resource This collection consists of records related to the Deerfield Public Library's research into whether or not the Wilmot house could be proved to have been a stop on the Underground Railroad. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deerfield Public Library Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Public Library Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Public Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A. Wilmot Passes: Pioneer of Deerfield Description An account of the resource Photocopy of obituary for Dwight Porter Wilmot, one of the children of Lyman Wilmot and Clarissa Dwight. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Highland Park News Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Highland Park News Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 12/12/1935 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0013.022 Brown County New York Carl Herbman Clarissa Dwight Wilmot Colorado Colorado State House of Representatives Colorado State Legislature Deerfield Illinois Dwight Porter Wilmot Evergreen Colorado First Presbyterian Church Heart Trouble Highland Park Press Israel Dwight Lizzie Scholes Wilmot Lyman J. Wilmot Lyman Wilmot Mrs. Herzman Sarah Porter Dwight https://archives.deerfieldlibrary.org/files/original/9f0e11dd0d0124626fc3de9daab5dfbb.pdf e136e8e90d82fe0a2e572de15a830e19 PDF Text Text � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Deerfield Review Obituaries Subject The topic of the resource Obituaries Death Notices Description An account of the resource The obituaries and death notices that appeared in the Deerfield Review newspaper Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deerfield Review Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Deerfield Review Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deerfield Review Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1945, 1947-1995 Language A language of the resource English Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context DPL.0007.002 Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1945-1995 Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. 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Gunckle Brickyard Chicago Illinois Crossing Gateman Deerfield Illinois Deerfield Postmaster Deerfield Review Floyd Gunckle Galesburg Illinois Highland Park Illinois Jennie Gunckle Knoxville Illinois Martha C. Love Mrs. S.P. Hutchison National Brick Company North Shore North Shore Line Railway System Obituary Ray Gunckle Rochester Indiana S.P. Hutchison Vernon Gunckle Waukegan Illinois Yuma Arizona